Organic vs. Inorganic Fertilizers: A Review on Sustainable Mung Bean Production under Kabul Semi‑Arid Conditions

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Mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) is a short‑duration legume of high nutritional and agronomic importance, particularly suited to semi‑arid regions such as Kabul, Afghanistan. Despite its potential, mung bean productivity in Afghanistan remains below global averages, constrained by poor soil fertility, limited varietal development, and inadequate crop management practices. This review synthesizes Kabul University research and global literature, focusing on the comparative impacts of organic and inorganic fertilizer practices on mung bean yield attributes. Organic fertilizers such as farmyard manure, compost, and humic‑acid enriched biomass enhance soil structure, microbial activity, and long‑term fertility, whereas inorganic fertilizers supply rapid nutrient availability but risk soil degradation if used exclusively. Evidence from Kabul trials demonstrated that humic‑acid enriched organic fertilizer (OF2) produced superior plant height, grain number per pod, seed yield, and biological yield compared to NPK and control treatments, underscoring its relevance for semi‑arid Kabul conditions. Integrated nutrient management (INM), combining organic and inorganic inputs, offers synergistic benefits by balancing productivity with sustainability. However, adoption in Afghanistan is constrained by economic limitations, weak extension services, and limited varietal testing. This review concludes that INM represents the most sustainable pathway for mung bean cultivation in Kabul’s semi‑arid environment, while highlighting research gaps in varietal response, soil fertility restoration, and farmer adoption strategies.

Effects of Irrigation Intervals on the Growth and Yield of Flax under Kabul Climate Conditions

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Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is an important oilseed and fiber crop with significant economic value. Efficient irrigation management is essential for improving crop productivity under the semi-arid conditions of Kabul, where water resources are limited. However, information on the optimum irrigation interval for flax production in this region is scarce.

This field experiment was conducted at the Agricultural Research Farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, Kabul University, during the spring season of 2025.The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of different irrigation intervals (4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 days) on the growth and yield of flax, Badakhshee variety. The experiment was arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with five treatments and three replications across two sites.

Data were recorded on plant height, number of branches per plant, number of pods per plant, number of grains per pod, 1000-grain weight (g) and total yield per hectare. The results showed that irrigation intervals significantly (P ≤ 0.05) affected all measured parameters. The highest plant height (68.67 cm), number of pods per plant (189), and grain yield (1856.67Kg ha⁻¹) were obtained under the 12-day irrigation interval, which increased yield by approximately (27.87%) compared to the 20-day interval. In contrast, the lowest values for most traits were recorded under the 20-day irrigation interval.

These findings indicate that irrigation every 12 days provides optimal moisture conditions for flax growth under Kabul agro-climatic conditions. Therefore, this interval is recommended for maximizing yield while ensuring efficient water use.

Soybean Growth and Yield Response to Fertilizers: A Comparative Review of Organic and Inorganic Inputs under Kabul Semi‑Arid Conditions

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Soybean (Glycine max L.) is a globally important crop valued for its high protein and oil content, yet its productivity in Afghanistan remains constrained by poor soil fertility and reliance on chemical fertilizers. This review article synthesizes experimental evidence on the comparative effects of organic inputs (night soil, farm manure) and inorganic fertilizers (diammonium phosphate, urea) on soybean growth and yield under Kabul’s semi‑arid conditions. The purpose of this study is to evaluate sustainable nutrient management strategies that enhance crop productivity while maintaining soil health.

Field trials conducted at Kabul University employed a randomized complete block design with five treatments: control, night soil, farm manure, DAP, and urea. Growth parameters such as plant height, branches per plant, leaf number, and pods per plant were measured alongside yield attributes including 100‑seed weight and grain yield. Results demonstrated that organic amendments significantly improved soybean performance compared to chemical fertilizers. Farm manure produced the tallest plants, highest branching, and maximum pods per plant, with grain yield reaching 1725 kg/ha. Night soil accelerated flowering and pod formation while also improving yield (1616 kg/ha). In contrast, urea resulted in the lowest yield (1262 kg/ha), highlighting the limitations of sole reliance on chemical inputs.

The findings confirm that organic fertilizers enhance soil structure, microbial activity, and long‑term fertility, making them vital for sustainable soybean production in semi‑arid Kabul. Integrating organic inputs into nutrient management strategies can reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers, improve food security, and support climate‑resilient agriculture in Afghanistan.

Physicochemical Quality of Lamb Se’i Treated with Kusambi (Schleichera oleosa) Liquid Smoke

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This study aimed was to determine the effect kusambi (Schleichera oleosa) wood liquid smoke on the physicochemical quality of Lamb se’i (smoked meat). A Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with a 4 x 4 layout was employed, consisting of four treatments: P0: control/no liquid smoke, P1: 0.5% liquid smoke, P2: 1.0% liquid smoke, and P3 : 1.5% liquid smoke with four replications. The parameters measured were: moisture, protein, fat content, pH and yield. Data were analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The results showed that the use of  kusambi wood liquid smoke at levels of 0.5%–1.5% did not affect yield (P>0.05), however, it increased moisture and protein content while pH and fat content (P<0.01). Yield ranged from 54.30% to 59.41%. The highest moisture and protein contents were observed with the 1.5% liquid smoke treatment (58.59% and 25.65%, respectively), while the lowest pH value and fat content was 5.37 and 4,60% respectively.  In conclusion, the use of kusambi liquid smoke at levels of 0.5%–1.5% increased the moisture and protein content of the se’i and lowered the pH value and fat content, whereas the yield remained unchanged.

Role of Fast Neutrons in Minor Actinide Transmutation and Long-Lived Radioactive Waste Reduction in Lead Cooled Fast Reactor: A Systematic Review

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The long-term sustainability of nuclear energy relies on the safe management of minor actinides (MAs) and long-lived fission products (LLFPs). The present work aims at systematically evaluating the role of the fast neutron spectrum in the nuclear transmutation of these isotopes in the Lead-cooled Fast Reactors (LFRs) to support the realization of a closed fuel cycle. The present work was performed as a systematic review following PRISMA 2020 guidelines and summarized data from 24 peer-reviewed sources to compare transmutation efficiency and neutronic features. The results indicate that the fast neutrons spectrum in LFRs is a very efficient environment for the actinide destruction by increasing the probability of the fission with respect to the neutron capture. In contrast to thermal reactors, which have positive D-factors and a tendency to accumulate heavier actinides, LFRs have negative D-factors that lead to waste destruction. In particular, an optimal loading of 1.5 wt% MAs provides annual transmutation rates of 15.18% for Am-241 and 13.07% for Np-237 with support ratios larger than one. This configuration is stable for core criticality and neutron flux distribution, but technical challenges remain, including accumulation of Curium isotopes (Cm-244 and Cm-245) and nearly 50% reduction in the effective delayed neutron fraction, affecting safety margins. In conclusion, LFR technology provides clear neutronic benefits for waste reduction over thermal systems but operational strategies should be optimized for curium management and reactor safety to allow evidence-based development of Generation IV reactors for sustainable waste management.

From Transparency to Accountability: A Review of Measurement Approaches in Vietnamese Higher Education

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Accountability has become a central condition of university autonomy, yet it is often measured through its most visible component: publicly available information. This critical narrative review examines how accountability has been conceptualised and measured in higher education and considers the implications for Vietnam during the transition from Circular 36/2017/TT-BGDDT to Circular 09/2024/TT-BGDDT. The review synthesises scholarship on higher education governance, public accountability, quality assurance, performance measurement, and transparency assessment, together with Vietnamese legal and empirical literature. It distinguishes transparency from the wider accountability relationship, compares five measurement families, and identifies recurring validity problems involving proxy indicators, attribution, composite scores, and compliance-oriented behaviour. The Vietnamese policy transition sharpens disclosure requirements by introducing a mandatory annual report, a specific publication deadline, an update rule, a five-year retention period, and an explicit clarity criterion. However, stronger disclosure rules do not by themselves demonstrate answerability, stakeholder dialogue, correction, or organisational learning. To address this gap, the article proposes a three-layer measurement direction: information existence, timeliness, and substantive information quality. The framework supports reproducible web-based assessment while preserving a clear inferential boundary between disclosure compliance and accountability as a broader governance process. The review concludes that Vietnam needs longitudinal, evidence-based measurement that combines document audits with process and stakeholder evidence if regulatory transparency is to develop into meaningful public accountability.

Effects of Different Rates of Potassium Application on Growth and Yield of Soybean

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Soybean is an important legume crop valued for its high protein and oil content, but its productivity is often limited by poor soil fertility and environmental stresses. This study aimed to determine the optimum potassium application rate for improving soybean growth and yield under the agroecological conditions of Kabul, Afghanistan. A field experiment was conducted during the 2025 growing season at the Research Farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, Kabul University, using a randomized complete block design with five potassium levels (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100 kg ha⁻¹) and three replications. Standard agronomic practices were applied uniformly throughout the experiment. Data were collected on plant height, branches per plant, pods per plant, total seeds per plant, 100-seed weight, and grain yield, and analysed using STAR software with the least significant difference test at the 5% probability level. Potassium application had no significant effect on vegetative growth traits, including plant height and number of branches per plant. However, it significantly improved yield components and grain yield. The application of 75 kg K ha⁻¹ produced the highest number of pods per plant, greatest 100-seed weight, and maximum grain yield, whereas increasing the rate to 100 kg K ha⁻¹ resulted in reduced yield. The findings indicate that potassium application enhances soybean productivity primarily through improved yield components rather than vegetative growth. It is concluded that 75 kg K ha⁻¹ is the optimum potassium rate for maximizing soybean yield under the agroecological conditions of Kabul, Afghanistan.

Psychometric Evaluation of an Applied Mathematics Examination Instrument Based on The Rasch Model

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Administering the same examination to students from different programs can result in uneven measurement of competence and potentially flawed academic decisions. In many vocational settings, psychometric reviews of examination instruments are uncommon, increasing the risk of inaccurate evaluation. This study investigates the Applied Mathematics Final Semester Examination (FSE) instruments in the Mechanical Engineering Department, Bali State Polytechnic, through the Rasch model. The data came from 206 students who answered 40 multiple-choice questions. The test was delivered online via the institutional e-learning system but taken in the classroom. Winsteps 5.9 was used to assess construct validity, reliability, separation indices, item difficulty in relation to ability, and Differential Item Functioning (DIF) across programs. Demonstrates that the instrument meets all psychometric standards. Nine components that didn’t fit nonetheless showed the planned construct. The separation indices were 3.46 and 6.18, and the person and item reliability were both over 0.90. The major dimension explained more than 63% of the variation, which indicated that it was one-dimensional. Usually, the difficulty levels were right for the students, but not at the extremes. Eight things suggested that there might be bias. The result is a one-of-a-kind Rasch evaluation of a vocational mathematics FSE that combines reliability, unidimensionality, and DIF analysis.  It can be used as a model for other situations and to make vocational math tests fair, valid, and reliable.

The Effects of AI-Enhanced Task-Based Language Teaching on Tenth Graders’ English-Speaking Skills: A Study at a High School

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The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into English language teaching has created more opportunities for students to help them enhance their English-speaking skills. The study aimed to investigate the effects of AI-enhanced Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) on the English-speaking skills of tenth graders and to explore their perceptions of AI-supported task-based speaking activities at a high school in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. A quasi-experimental design was employed involving 79 tenth graders from two classes. The experimental group (n = 40) received AI-enhanced TBLT, while the control group (n = 39) received the standard TBLT throughout a 12-week intervention. A quantitative method was used to collect the data from pre- and post-speaking tests, while qualitative data were collected through a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Qualitative data were examined via content analysis. The findings revealed that the experimental group demonstrated greater development in their speaking performance than the control group. Students also expressed their positive and negative perceptions of AI-enhanced task-based speaking activities when they utilized their AI tools in speaking activities. The findings suggested that the integration of AI tools into the TBLT method could enhance students’ English-speaking skills and promote positive learning experiences, despite some challenges in Vietnamese high schools.

Comparison of the Yield of Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) Varieties under the Climatic Conditions of Kabul

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Buckwheat is gaining attention as a promising crop because of its nutritional value and ability to grow under diverse environmental conditions. This study investigated the performance of three buckwheat varieties Common Buckwheat, Devyadka, and Zyloni under the agro-climatic conditions of Kabul during the 2025 growing season. The field experiment was carried out at the Research Farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, Kabul University, using a randomized complete block design with four replications across two contrasting field environments. Several growth characteristics, including plant height, leaf number, leaf width, and number of branches per plant, together with total biomass and 100-seed weight, were evaluated. The results revealed that plant height, leaf number, leaf width, and total biomass varied significantly among the varieties and between environments, with a clear interaction between genotype and environmental conditions. These findings indicate that the growth and productivity of buckwheat are strongly influenced by the environment in which each variety is cultivated. In contrast, the number of branches per plant and 100-seed weight remained relatively stable across environments, suggesting that these traits are less affected by environmental variation. Among the tested varieties, Devyadka produced the greatest vegetative growth and biomass under favourable conditions but showed greater sensitivity to environmental changes. Common Buckwheat maintained consistent performance across both environments, demonstrating strong adaptability and stable productivity, while Zyloni displayed moderate performance with reasonable stability. The study concludes that environmental conditions play an important role in determining buckwheat performance in Kabul. Considering both yield potential and stability, Common Buckwheat is the most suitable variety for cultivation under the variable agro-climatic conditions of the region.