Review of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizer Practices in Mung Bean (Vigna radiata L.) under Kabul Climatic Conditions

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Mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) is a short-duration pulse crop of global importance, valued for its nutritional quality, nitrogen-fixing ability, and adaptability to semi-arid climates. In Afghanistan, particularly under Kabul agro-climatic conditions, productivity remains below global averages due to poor soil fertility, limited access to improved varieties, and inadequate nutrient management. This review synthesizes recent evidence (2022–2026) on organic and inorganic fertilizer practices in mung bean cultivation. Organic amendments such as poultry manure at higher application rates (8–10 t ha⁻¹) significantly enhance vegetative growth, pod formation, and grain yield [1,2,4]. Inorganic NPK fertilizers provide immediate nutrient availability but risk long-term soil degradation if applied alone [3,6]. Integrated nutrient management (INM), combining mineral fertilizers with organic inputs, improves soil fertility, microbial activity, and sustainability, offering superior productivity outcomes [7,11,12]. Improved varieties such as Enam demonstrate positive responses under INM strategies, underscoring the importance of genotype × environment × management interactions [2,5,9]. Recent studies highlight biofertilizers and micronutrient supplementation as promising approaches to further enhance nodulation, nitrogen fixation, and seed quality [3,8,10]. Key research gaps remain in varietal performance, soil fertility constraints, and region-specific INM practices. Adoption of integrated fertilizer management can substantially improve mung bean productivity and soil health in Kabul and similar semi-arid regions, contributing to food security and sustainable agriculture.

Comparison of Yield & Agronomical Characteristics of four Local Mung Bean Varieties under Climatic Conditions of Kabul, Afghanistan

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Mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) is an important pulse crop with considerable potential to enhance food and nutritional security, improve soil fertility, and increase farmers’ incomes in Afghanistan. However, its productivity remains constrained by the widespread use of low-yielding varieties and the challenges associated with semi-arid climatic conditions. This study evaluated the Agronomic performance and yield potential of four mung bean varieties under the Agro climatic conditions of Kabul, Afghanistan, where low annual precipitation, high summer temperatures, and climatic variability limit crop production. The experiment was conducted using a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) consisting of four treatments: Helmandi (T1), Local (T2), 08 Certified (T3), and 07 Certified (T4), with six replications. Data were analysed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), and treatment means were compared using an appropriate mean separation test.

The results demonstrated significant differences (P < 0.05) among the evaluated varieties. The 07 Certified variety (T4) produced the highest mean grain yield (1,833.77 kg ha⁻¹), followed by 08 Certified (T3) (1,720.72 kg ha⁻¹), Local (T2) (1,378.87 kg ha⁻¹), and Helmandi (T1) (643.56 kg ha⁻¹). Mean comparison analysis confirmed significant differences among all varieties, with the performance ranking as T4 > T3 > T2 > T1. The superior yield performance of the 07 Certified variety indicates its greater adaptability and productivity under the semi-arid conditions of Kabul. These findings highlight the importance of promoting improved certified mung bean varieties to enhance crop productivity, support climate resilient agricultural systems, and contribute to improved food security and rural livelihoods in Afghanistan. Further multi location and multi-season evaluations are recommended to assess the stability, adaptability, and potential for wider adoption of the 07 certified variety.

Effect of Different Levels of Urea on Growth, Yield, and Yield Attributes of Mustard under Kabul Agro-Climatic Conditions

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Nitrogen is a key macronutrient that plays an essential role in plant growth, development, and yield formation in oilseed crops such as mustard (Brassica juncea L.). Proper nitrogen management is important for improving productivity while ensuring economic efficiency and environmental sustainability, particularly in low-input farming systems like those in Afghanistan. This study was conducted to assess the effect of different urea (nitrogen) levels on the growth, yield attributes, phenology, and grain yield of mustard under Kabul agro-climatic conditions. A field experiment was arranged with four treatments: T₁ (0 kg urea ha⁻¹), T₂ (60 kg urea ha⁻¹), T₃ (80 kg urea ha⁻¹), and T₄ (100 kg urea ha⁻¹) using a randomized design. Data were collected on plant height, number of branches per plant, number of pods per plant, phenological traits (flowering and maturity), and grain yield. The results showed that nitrogen application significantly improved vegetative growth and yield components of mustard. Increasing nitrogen levels enhanced plant height, number of branches, and pods per plant. Grain yield responded positively to nitrogen application, with the highest yield consistently obtained at 80 kg urea ha⁻¹. However, further increase in nitrogen above this level did not result in proportional yield improvement, indicating diminishing returns. Phenological traits such as days to flowering and maturity were not significantly affected by nitrogen levels. Overall, the study concludes that moderate nitrogen application optimizes growth and yield of mustard without affecting its growth duration. The application of 80 kg urea ha⁻¹ is recommended as the optimal rate for mustard production under Kabul conditions, as it improves productivity, enhances nitrogen use efficiency, reduces production costs, and supports sustainable agriculture.

Optimization of Seed Rate for Chickpea Variety FLIP-94 under the Climatic Conditions of Kabul

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Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a vital pulse crop in semi-arid regions, yet its productivity is often constrained by poor agronomic practices, particularly seed rate management (Bhatt et al., 2022; Rahimi et al., 2024). A field experiment was conducted in Kabul, Afghanistan, to evaluate the effect of five seed rates (65, 75, 85, 95, and 105 kg/ha) on growth and yield performance under semi-arid conditions. The trial was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Results demonstrated significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) among treatments for plant height, leaf area, pods per plant, seeds per pod, 100 seed weight, and yield, while the number of branches per plant showed no significant variation. The optimum seed rate was identified as 85 kg/ha, which produced taller plants (33.2 cm), higher pod numbers (25–32 pods/plant), heavier seeds (31 g per 100 seeds), and improved yield (0.465 kg/m²). Excessive seed rates (105 kg/ha) reduced yield due to overcrowding, intra specific competition, and depletion of limited soil moisture, resulting in smaller seeds (25 g per 100 seeds) and fewer pods (20.7 pods/plant). These findings highlight the critical role of optimized seed rate management in enhancing chickpea productivity under Kabul’s challenging climatic conditions, where short growing seasons, spring frost, and terminal drought are major constraints (Jettner et al., 2019; Siddique et al., 2022). The study provides evidence based recommendations for local farmers to replace traditional broadcast sowing with optimized seed rates, thereby improving food security and income generation in Afghanistan (FAO, 2026; Merga & Haji, 2019).

Effect of Different Levels of Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) Fertilizer on Growth and Yield of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Variety Flip 94

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Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important pulse crop valued for its nutritional quality and role in sustainable agriculture. However, productivity is often constrained by low soil fertility and poor nutrient management, particularly phosphorus deficiency. A field experiment was conducted during the 2025 growing season at the Research Farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, Kabul University, Afghanistan, to evaluate the effect of different levels of diammonium phosphate (DAP) fertilizer on growth and yield of chickpea variety Flip 94. The experiment was arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with five DAP levels (0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 kg ha⁻¹) and three replications. Results showed that DAP application significantly influenced all growth and yield parameters, while replication effects were non-significant. Treatment 3 (100 kg ha⁻¹ DAP) consistently performed best, recording the highest plant height (34.23 cm), number of branches per plant (4.92), number of pods per plant (37.47), grains per pod (1.93), and grain yield (5.52 t ha⁻¹). In contrast, the control treatment recorded the lowest values for all studied traits. The improved performance under optimal DAP application is attributed to enhanced nutrient availability, better root development, increased nodulation, and improved photosynthetic efficiency, which collectively supported stronger vegetative growth and reproductive development. In conclusion, application of DAP fertilizer significantly improves chickpea growth and yield under Kabul agro-climatic conditions. Treatment 3 (100 kg ha⁻¹ DAP) was identified as the most effective dose for maximizing productivity of chickpea variety Flip 94.

Soybean Cultivation in Afghanistan: A Review of Varietal Adaptability, Agronomic Practices, and Food Security Opportunities

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Soybean (Glycine max L.) is a globally important legume and oilseed crop, valued for its high protein and oil content as well as its role in sustainable agriculture through biological nitrogen fixation [12,8]. Despite its global significance, soybean adoption in Afghanistan remains limited, with cereal-based systems dominating production and contributing to nutritional deficiencies and soil fertility decline [13]. Introducing soybean into Afghan farming systems offers opportunities to diversify production, enhance food security, and restore soil health [2,15].

This review synthesizes global advances in soybean research—including genomics, multi omics, and climate resilient breeding strategies [20,22,33]—alongside regional experiences from South Asia and localized trials in Afghanistan [25,26,30,34]. Evidence from Pakistan [25,31], India [26,32], Bangladesh [30,24], and Iran [34] demonstrates soybean’s potential to improve soil fertility, strengthen climate resilience, and meet rising demand for protein rich food and feed [24,25,26,30,34]. Afghan specific trials in Kabul Province have identified promising varieties such as LD109168, LD0910911, Stine30E32, and which achieved yields above 2,500 kg ha⁻¹ under semi-arid conditions [1,7,9]. However, adoption remains constrained by weak seed systems, limited farmer awareness, and underdeveloped processing infrastructure [30].

By integrating global lessons with Afghan realities, this review highlights soybean’s potential as a strategic crop for food security and sustainable agriculture under semi-arid conditions, while underscoring the need for investment in seed systems, extension services, and processing industries [5].

Selective Iron Suppression through Sulfation, Oxidative Calcination, and pH-Controlled Atmospheric Leaching of a Ferruginous Oxidized Copper Ore

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Iron-rich oxidized copper ores are challenging to treat by atmospheric leaching because iron oxides and oxyhydroxides may consume acid and increase impurity loading in the pregnant leach solution. This study evaluated a three-stage route comprising sulfuric-acid sulfation, oxidative calcination, and pH-controlled atmospheric leaching, with the primary objective of minimizing net Fe transfer rather than maximizing Cu extraction. Six distinct operating conditions were investigated using a ferruginous oxidized copper ore from northern Bahia, Brazil, containing 19.6 wt.% Fe, 5.37 wt.% Al, 1.47 wt.% Mg, 0.524 wt.% Mn, and 1.05 wt.% Cu. Commercial sulfuric-acid solution additions during sulfation ranged from 9.75 to 99.69 kg solution/t dry ore. The sulfated products were calcined through staged temperatures from approximately 250 to 700 °C over 6 h and subsequently leached at approximately 90 °C for 180 min, with final solution pH values of 2.33–2.77. Reconciled Fe transfer remained between 0.026% and 0.340%, corresponding to Fe suppression of 99.66–99.97%. By contrast, Mg, Mn, and Al transfers ranged from 6.39% to 29.78%, 38.14% to 59.98%, and 6.95% to 16.28%, respectively, confirming that Fe suppression did not result from a general inhibition of mineral dissolution. The measured Fe transfers corresponded to calculated stoichiometric acid equivalents of only 0.13–1.76 kg H₂SO₄/t ore, compared with an upper-bound requirement of 516.34 kg H₂SO₄/t ore for complete conversion and dissolution of feed Fe as Fe(III) sulfate. The response is consistent with initial formation of ferric sulfate, basic ferric sulfate, or related Fe-bearing sulfate intermediates, followed by thermal destabilization to poorly soluble Fe(III)-oxide-bearing phases and release of sulfur oxides. Released SO₃ may have promoted sulfate redistribution to neighboring reactive metal–oxygen sites, while controlled-pH leaching was consistent with an additional aqueous Fe-rejection barrier through limited Fe-oxide attack and Fe(III) hydrolysis or reprecipitation. Mg behaved as a persistent sulfate sink, Mn showed redox-sensitive transfer, and Al exhibited intermediate behavior. The route therefore selectively decoupled the large Fe inventory from the final aqueous products. Direct-leaching controls and stage-resolved mineralogical, sulfur-speciation, and off-gas analyses are required to quantify actual acid savings and confirm the proposed mechanism.

Stakeholder Salience and Contested Governance in a Sacred Heritage Tourism: Evidence from Sultan Suriansyah Tomb Complex, Indonesia

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The Sultan Suriansyah Tomb Complex is a well-known religious tourist attraction and cultural heritage site in the city of Banjarmasin, rich in the historical significance of the Banjar Sultanate. However, the mausoleum faces a crisis stemming from a conflict over management between the descendants of the sultan and the local community. Therefore, this study aims to analyze stakeholder involvement in its management. This study employs a descriptive qualitative approach, with data collected through observation, literature review, and in-depth interviews with key informants. The data was then analyzed using NVivo 12 for Windows to identify the typology of the stakeholders. The results indicate that the government level falls under the “definitive stakeholder” typology, the descendants’ group and the local community fall under the “dormant stakeholder” typology, and the City’s Cultural Heritage Expert Team (TACB) falls under the “discretionary stakeholder” typology. However, although the government level holds the highest typology, it cannot make final decisions, so management appears to proceed independently without collaboration among actors. In fact, the City Cultural Heritage Expert Team (TACB) is not involved in making final decisions regarding the management of the Sultan Suriansyah Tomb Complex. Thus, management conflicts do not arise from the absence of stakeholders, but rather from an unbalanced distribution of power, legitimacy, and urgency.

Research Skills and Degree Completion Efficiency: A Diagnosis of the Obstacles to Graduation by Thesis

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The expansion in the number of options for obtaining a professional degree at Mexican universities has not translated into an improvement in students’ scientific output. On the contrary, indicators show a gradual decline in the choice of the thesis over standardized examinations, amid an ongoing debate about the usefulness of degree-qualifying projects given the lengthening of graduation times and the delayed entry into the labor market. This article analyzes the socioeconomic, personal, pedagogical, and methodological problems that students of the Bachelor’s program in Communication and Media at the Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit (UAN) face when developing their thesis. Using a quantitative approach and a descriptive cross-sectional design, a questionnaire was administered to a sample of 78 eighth-semester students. The results reveal a contradiction: although the curriculum includes five consecutive research courses, 71.7% of the student body prefers to graduate through the EGEL-CENEVAL examination because they regard it as a faster process. Meanwhile, the 17.8% who consider writing a thesis face long working hours (91%), a lack of accessible advising (73.1%), and a theory-based form of teaching that does not translate into practical scientific-writing skills. It is concluded that the lag stems from factors related to pedagogical and institutional support; therefore, restructuring the research courses into production-workshop formats is proposed.

Media Framing of Indonesia’s Capital Relocation: Political Legitimacy, Cultural Symbolism, and National Identity in Digital News Coverage

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The relocation of Indonesia’s capital from Jakarta to Nusantara in East Kalimantan is not merely an administrative and infrastructural policy, but also a symbolic act of political communication. Online news media play a central role in translating this state-led project into public narratives that shape perceptions of legitimacy, cultural meaning, and national identity. This study examines how Indonesian online news media frame the capital relocation through three dimensions: political legitimacy, cultural symbolism, and national identity. Using a qualitative design, the study applies Pan and Kosicki’s framing analysis model, which examines news discourse through syntactic, script, thematic, and rhetorical structures. The data consist of five online news articles published by DetikNews and DetikJatim concerning symbolic events in the early phase of the Nusantara project, particularly the ritual of uniting soil and water from provinces across Indonesia in the Kendi Nusantara. The findings reveal three dominant frames. First, the political legitimacy frame emphasizes presidential leadership, governors’ participation, and coordinated state authority. Second, the cultural symbolism frame highlights ritual objects, cultural metaphors, and historical references such as Tanah Air, Kendi Nusantara, and Majapahit heritage. Third, the national identity frame presents the relocation as a collective national project that symbolically integrates diverse regions into a shared political imagination. These frames show how online news media transform a complex policy issue into a culturally resonant narrative of authority, unity, and national future-making. The study contributes to political communication and framing research by demonstrating how digital journalism legitimizes large-scale state projects through symbolic storytelling.