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Reconstructing Thinking Process Indicators in Learning: An Integrative Synthesis of Vygotsky, Piaget, and Thorndike

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Research on thinking processes in learning has developed across theoretical traditions, yet related constructs are often examined separately. This fragmentation makes it difficult to develop an integrated understanding of how learners direct attention, process knowledge, draw inferences, and reflect on and regulate their thinking. This study synthesizes the literature on thinking processes in learning and develops an integrative conceptual framework linking core thinking processes with supporting conditions and developmental and social contexts. A systematic literature review using PRISMA-based selection procedures examined Scopus-indexed articles published between 2021 and 2026. Of 288 identified articles, 11 met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed through data extraction, thematic analysis, and narrative synthesis. The synthesis identifies three core processes: attentional regulation, knowledge processing and inference, and reflection and control. These processes operate within supporting conditions, including prior knowledge, task demands, self-efficacy, learning experiences, language, and social support, and are shaped by developmental and social contexts. The findings distinguish core thinking processes from constructs that function as supporting conditions. The proposed framework conceptualizes thinking as a dynamic system of interrelated processes rather than a fixed sequence of stages. It provides a conceptual basis for developing operational indicators and subsequent empirical validation.

Pseudo Students’ Thinking Process in Solving Function Composition Inverse Problems Based on Piaget’s Theory

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The purpose of this study was to describe the pseudo-thinking process of students in solving inverse function composition problems based on Piaget’s theory. This study was descriptive qualitative research. Subjects were selected using purposive sampling, with two 11th-grade students from MAN 3 Banyuwangi participating in the study. The instruments used were mathematics tests and interview guidelines. Data collection techniques included test sheets with think-aloud, followed by interviews, which were then analyzed and described. Data analysis techniques employed the Miles and Huberman procedure, which consisted of data condensation, data presentation, and conclusion drawing. The data validity technique used triangulation methods. The test used in this study consisted of two questions. The results showed that students who think pseudo-correctly or pseudo-incorrectly tend to experience many assimilation processes in Piaget’s stages. Students who think pseudo-correctly continue to experience assimilation, so they will only be in a state of disequilibrium. Students who think pseudo-incorrectly initially experience many assimilation processes, followed by disequilibrium, but can reach a state of equilibrium. Individuals with pseudo-wrong thinking have a more effective accommodation process than those with pseudo-right thinking. Thus, students with pseudo-right thinking tend to go through two Piaget stages in solving inverse function composition problems, while students with pseudo-wrong thinking go through all four Piaget stages.