Soybean Growth and Yield Response to Fertilizers: A Comparative Review of Organic and Inorganic Inputs under Kabul Semi‑Arid Conditions

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Soybean (Glycine max L.) is a globally important crop valued for its high protein and oil content, yet its productivity in Afghanistan remains constrained by poor soil fertility and reliance on chemical fertilizers. This review article synthesizes experimental evidence on the comparative effects of organic inputs (night soil, farm manure) and inorganic fertilizers (diammonium phosphate, urea) on soybean growth and yield under Kabul’s semi‑arid conditions. The purpose of this study is to evaluate sustainable nutrient management strategies that enhance crop productivity while maintaining soil health.

Field trials conducted at Kabul University employed a randomized complete block design with five treatments: control, night soil, farm manure, DAP, and urea. Growth parameters such as plant height, branches per plant, leaf number, and pods per plant were measured alongside yield attributes including 100‑seed weight and grain yield. Results demonstrated that organic amendments significantly improved soybean performance compared to chemical fertilizers. Farm manure produced the tallest plants, highest branching, and maximum pods per plant, with grain yield reaching 1725 kg/ha. Night soil accelerated flowering and pod formation while also improving yield (1616 kg/ha). In contrast, urea resulted in the lowest yield (1262 kg/ha), highlighting the limitations of sole reliance on chemical inputs.

The findings confirm that organic fertilizers enhance soil structure, microbial activity, and long‑term fertility, making them vital for sustainable soybean production in semi‑arid Kabul. Integrating organic inputs into nutrient management strategies can reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers, improve food security, and support climate‑resilient agriculture in Afghanistan.

The Effects of Behaviour-Based and Cognition-Based Interventions on Work-Life Balance Outcomes among Workforce in Indonesia

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Work-life balance has become increasingly important within the changing employment environment. However, evidence on how employees actively regulate the boundary between their professional and personal roles continues to be shaped largely by studies from Global North and office-based settings. This study investigates the influence of behaviour-based and cognition-based personal interventions on the three dimensions of work-life balance outcomes: work-related, nonwork-related, and stress-related. Adopting a quantitative, cross-sectional, and explanatory approach, data were gathered through a self-administered online survey from 427 employees representing various industries across Indonesia. Multiple linear regression models were then estimated, corresponding to each outcome dimension. The results showed that all models were statistically significant and that both intervention types were statistically significant to predict the three outcome domains. Behaviour-based interventions produce the strongest effect, particularly for work-related outcomes (β = 0.635) and stress-related outcomes (β = 0.625). Cognition-based intervention also contributes significantly, with their largest effect found for nonwork-related outcomes (β = 0.340). The work-related outcomes model has the strongest explanatory power with an adjusted R2 of 0.809. Overall, the findings indicate that behavioural and cognitive interventions operate as complementary mechanisms and broaden the relevance of previous studies’ findings of personal-intervention framework in the wider multisector workforce in Indonesia.

Review of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizer Practices in Mung Bean (Vigna radiata L.) under Kabul Climatic Conditions

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Mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) is a short-duration pulse crop of global importance, valued for its nutritional quality, nitrogen-fixing ability, and adaptability to semi-arid climates. In Afghanistan, particularly under Kabul agro-climatic conditions, productivity remains below global averages due to poor soil fertility, limited access to improved varieties, and inadequate nutrient management. This review synthesizes recent evidence (2022–2026) on organic and inorganic fertilizer practices in mung bean cultivation. Organic amendments such as poultry manure at higher application rates (8–10 t ha⁻¹) significantly enhance vegetative growth, pod formation, and grain yield [1,2,4]. Inorganic NPK fertilizers provide immediate nutrient availability but risk long-term soil degradation if applied alone [3,6]. Integrated nutrient management (INM), combining mineral fertilizers with organic inputs, improves soil fertility, microbial activity, and sustainability, offering superior productivity outcomes [7,11,12]. Improved varieties such as Enam demonstrate positive responses under INM strategies, underscoring the importance of genotype × environment × management interactions [2,5,9]. Recent studies highlight biofertilizers and micronutrient supplementation as promising approaches to further enhance nodulation, nitrogen fixation, and seed quality [3,8,10]. Key research gaps remain in varietal performance, soil fertility constraints, and region-specific INM practices. Adoption of integrated fertilizer management can substantially improve mung bean productivity and soil health in Kabul and similar semi-arid regions, contributing to food security and sustainable agriculture.

Comparison of Yield & Agronomical Characteristics of four Local Mung Bean Varieties under Climatic Conditions of Kabul, Afghanistan

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Mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) is an important pulse crop with considerable potential to enhance food and nutritional security, improve soil fertility, and increase farmers’ incomes in Afghanistan. However, its productivity remains constrained by the widespread use of low-yielding varieties and the challenges associated with semi-arid climatic conditions. This study evaluated the Agronomic performance and yield potential of four mung bean varieties under the Agro climatic conditions of Kabul, Afghanistan, where low annual precipitation, high summer temperatures, and climatic variability limit crop production. The experiment was conducted using a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) consisting of four treatments: Helmandi (T1), Local (T2), 08 Certified (T3), and 07 Certified (T4), with six replications. Data were analysed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), and treatment means were compared using an appropriate mean separation test.

The results demonstrated significant differences (P < 0.05) among the evaluated varieties. The 07 Certified variety (T4) produced the highest mean grain yield (1,833.77 kg ha⁻¹), followed by 08 Certified (T3) (1,720.72 kg ha⁻¹), Local (T2) (1,378.87 kg ha⁻¹), and Helmandi (T1) (643.56 kg ha⁻¹). Mean comparison analysis confirmed significant differences among all varieties, with the performance ranking as T4 > T3 > T2 > T1. The superior yield performance of the 07 Certified variety indicates its greater adaptability and productivity under the semi-arid conditions of Kabul. These findings highlight the importance of promoting improved certified mung bean varieties to enhance crop productivity, support climate resilient agricultural systems, and contribute to improved food security and rural livelihoods in Afghanistan. Further multi location and multi-season evaluations are recommended to assess the stability, adaptability, and potential for wider adoption of the 07 certified variety.

Effect of Different Levels of Urea on Growth, Yield, and Yield Attributes of Mustard under Kabul Agro-Climatic Conditions

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Nitrogen is a key macronutrient that plays an essential role in plant growth, development, and yield formation in oilseed crops such as mustard (Brassica juncea L.). Proper nitrogen management is important for improving productivity while ensuring economic efficiency and environmental sustainability, particularly in low-input farming systems like those in Afghanistan. This study was conducted to assess the effect of different urea (nitrogen) levels on the growth, yield attributes, phenology, and grain yield of mustard under Kabul agro-climatic conditions. A field experiment was arranged with four treatments: T₁ (0 kg urea ha⁻¹), T₂ (60 kg urea ha⁻¹), T₃ (80 kg urea ha⁻¹), and T₄ (100 kg urea ha⁻¹) using a randomized design. Data were collected on plant height, number of branches per plant, number of pods per plant, phenological traits (flowering and maturity), and grain yield. The results showed that nitrogen application significantly improved vegetative growth and yield components of mustard. Increasing nitrogen levels enhanced plant height, number of branches, and pods per plant. Grain yield responded positively to nitrogen application, with the highest yield consistently obtained at 80 kg urea ha⁻¹. However, further increase in nitrogen above this level did not result in proportional yield improvement, indicating diminishing returns. Phenological traits such as days to flowering and maturity were not significantly affected by nitrogen levels. Overall, the study concludes that moderate nitrogen application optimizes growth and yield of mustard without affecting its growth duration. The application of 80 kg urea ha⁻¹ is recommended as the optimal rate for mustard production under Kabul conditions, as it improves productivity, enhances nitrogen use efficiency, reduces production costs, and supports sustainable agriculture.

Optimization of Seed Rate for Chickpea Variety FLIP-94 under the Climatic Conditions of Kabul

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Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a vital pulse crop in semi-arid regions, yet its productivity is often constrained by poor agronomic practices, particularly seed rate management (Bhatt et al., 2022; Rahimi et al., 2024). A field experiment was conducted in Kabul, Afghanistan, to evaluate the effect of five seed rates (65, 75, 85, 95, and 105 kg/ha) on growth and yield performance under semi-arid conditions. The trial was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Results demonstrated significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) among treatments for plant height, leaf area, pods per plant, seeds per pod, 100 seed weight, and yield, while the number of branches per plant showed no significant variation. The optimum seed rate was identified as 85 kg/ha, which produced taller plants (33.2 cm), higher pod numbers (25–32 pods/plant), heavier seeds (31 g per 100 seeds), and improved yield (0.465 kg/m²). Excessive seed rates (105 kg/ha) reduced yield due to overcrowding, intra specific competition, and depletion of limited soil moisture, resulting in smaller seeds (25 g per 100 seeds) and fewer pods (20.7 pods/plant). These findings highlight the critical role of optimized seed rate management in enhancing chickpea productivity under Kabul’s challenging climatic conditions, where short growing seasons, spring frost, and terminal drought are major constraints (Jettner et al., 2019; Siddique et al., 2022). The study provides evidence based recommendations for local farmers to replace traditional broadcast sowing with optimized seed rates, thereby improving food security and income generation in Afghanistan (FAO, 2026; Merga & Haji, 2019).

Effect of Different Levels of Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) Fertilizer on Growth and Yield of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Variety Flip 94

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Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important pulse crop valued for its nutritional quality and role in sustainable agriculture. However, productivity is often constrained by low soil fertility and poor nutrient management, particularly phosphorus deficiency. A field experiment was conducted during the 2025 growing season at the Research Farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, Kabul University, Afghanistan, to evaluate the effect of different levels of diammonium phosphate (DAP) fertilizer on growth and yield of chickpea variety Flip 94. The experiment was arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with five DAP levels (0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 kg ha⁻¹) and three replications. Results showed that DAP application significantly influenced all growth and yield parameters, while replication effects were non-significant. Treatment 3 (100 kg ha⁻¹ DAP) consistently performed best, recording the highest plant height (34.23 cm), number of branches per plant (4.92), number of pods per plant (37.47), grains per pod (1.93), and grain yield (5.52 t ha⁻¹). In contrast, the control treatment recorded the lowest values for all studied traits. The improved performance under optimal DAP application is attributed to enhanced nutrient availability, better root development, increased nodulation, and improved photosynthetic efficiency, which collectively supported stronger vegetative growth and reproductive development. In conclusion, application of DAP fertilizer significantly improves chickpea growth and yield under Kabul agro-climatic conditions. Treatment 3 (100 kg ha⁻¹ DAP) was identified as the most effective dose for maximizing productivity of chickpea variety Flip 94.

Soybean Cultivation in Afghanistan: A Review of Varietal Adaptability, Agronomic Practices, and Food Security Opportunities

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Soybean (Glycine max L.) is a globally important legume and oilseed crop, valued for its high protein and oil content as well as its role in sustainable agriculture through biological nitrogen fixation [12,8]. Despite its global significance, soybean adoption in Afghanistan remains limited, with cereal-based systems dominating production and contributing to nutritional deficiencies and soil fertility decline [13]. Introducing soybean into Afghan farming systems offers opportunities to diversify production, enhance food security, and restore soil health [2,15].

This review synthesizes global advances in soybean research—including genomics, multi omics, and climate resilient breeding strategies [20,22,33]—alongside regional experiences from South Asia and localized trials in Afghanistan [25,26,30,34]. Evidence from Pakistan [25,31], India [26,32], Bangladesh [30,24], and Iran [34] demonstrates soybean’s potential to improve soil fertility, strengthen climate resilience, and meet rising demand for protein rich food and feed [24,25,26,30,34]. Afghan specific trials in Kabul Province have identified promising varieties such as LD109168, LD0910911, Stine30E32, and which achieved yields above 2,500 kg ha⁻¹ under semi-arid conditions [1,7,9]. However, adoption remains constrained by weak seed systems, limited farmer awareness, and underdeveloped processing infrastructure [30].

By integrating global lessons with Afghan realities, this review highlights soybean’s potential as a strategic crop for food security and sustainable agriculture under semi-arid conditions, while underscoring the need for investment in seed systems, extension services, and processing industries [5].

Media Framing of Indonesia’s Capital Relocation: Political Legitimacy, Cultural Symbolism, and National Identity in Digital News Coverage

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The relocation of Indonesia’s capital from Jakarta to Nusantara in East Kalimantan is not merely an administrative and infrastructural policy, but also a symbolic act of political communication. Online news media play a central role in translating this state-led project into public narratives that shape perceptions of legitimacy, cultural meaning, and national identity. This study examines how Indonesian online news media frame the capital relocation through three dimensions: political legitimacy, cultural symbolism, and national identity. Using a qualitative design, the study applies Pan and Kosicki’s framing analysis model, which examines news discourse through syntactic, script, thematic, and rhetorical structures. The data consist of five online news articles published by DetikNews and DetikJatim concerning symbolic events in the early phase of the Nusantara project, particularly the ritual of uniting soil and water from provinces across Indonesia in the Kendi Nusantara. The findings reveal three dominant frames. First, the political legitimacy frame emphasizes presidential leadership, governors’ participation, and coordinated state authority. Second, the cultural symbolism frame highlights ritual objects, cultural metaphors, and historical references such as Tanah Air, Kendi Nusantara, and Majapahit heritage. Third, the national identity frame presents the relocation as a collective national project that symbolically integrates diverse regions into a shared political imagination. These frames show how online news media transform a complex policy issue into a culturally resonant narrative of authority, unity, and national future-making. The study contributes to political communication and framing research by demonstrating how digital journalism legitimizes large-scale state projects through symbolic storytelling.

Development of Outdoor Learning Mathematics Project Based Learning Tools on Simple and Compound Interest to Improve Students’ Critical Thinking Ability

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This research is motivated by the continued dominance of conventional mathematics learning in vocational high schools, which rarely incorporates practical and contextual activities. Consequently, students’ critical thinking skills remain suboptimal, and learning tools based on the Outdoor Learning Mathematics Project (OLMP) are not yet available. This study aims to describe the process and results of developing OLMP-based learning tools for the topic of simple and compound interest that are valid, practical, and effective in improving vocational high school students’ critical thinking skills. This Research and Development (R&D) study adopted the 4D model (Define, Design, Develop, Disseminate). The subjects were 11th-grade students at SMKS 1 Pancasila Ambulu Jember. The developed tools included a Teaching Module, Student Worksheets (LKM), a FRISCO-oriented Critical Thinking Skills Test Package, and a User Manual. The results indicated that the learning tools met the validity criteria, with an average expert validity score (𝑉𝑎) ranging from 3.68 to 3.78 (valid category). The practicality criteria were also met, evidenced by an average learning implementation score of 3.78 (high category), a student activity rate of 91.35% (very active category), and a positive student response rate of 96.19%. Furthermore, the effectiveness criteria were achieved with a learning mastery rate of 85% (exceeding the 70% threshold), a moderate-to-high increase in the average N-Gain score, and an independent sample t-test showing a statistically significant difference compared to the control class (𝑝 < 0.05). Based on these findings, it is concluded that the OLMP-based learning tools for simple and compound interest are valid, practical, and effective in enhancing the critical thinking skills of vocational high school students.