Abstract :

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process, which depends on conventional welding arc processes, is a promising option for industries when compared to typical manufacturing processes for assembling large and complicated products. WAAM process attracting manufacturing industries due to its potential to make large and complicated components with real sharp production run time with almost single step process. The process represents greater material savings, higher material buildup rate and speed, cost savings, lower cycle time, less impact on the environment, and capability of producing large size parts when evaluated with other fabrication methods. This paper focuses on WAAM process and reviews some of the common possible process defects found in variety of studies made previously to summaries a guideline for the causes of such defects and provides some prevention methods found by those studies. Of these common possible defects found in researchers works and reviewed in this work are pores, lack of fusion, cracks, and residual stress.

---

Keywords :

Additive manufacturing; Arc welding defects; Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing WAAM; WAAM defects review; Fusion welding defects.

---

References :

1. Vafadar, A., et al., Advances in metal additive manufacturing: a review of common processes, industrial applications, and current challenges. Applied Sciences, 2021. 11(3): p. 1213.
2. Citarella, R. and V. Giannella, Additive Manufacturing in Industry. 2021, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. p. 840.
3. Paul, A., et al. A real-time iterative machine learning approach for temperature profile prediction in additive manufacturing processes. in 2019 IEEE International Conference on Data Science and Advanced Analytics (DSAA). 2019. IEEE.
4. Kim, F.H., F.H. Kim, and S.P. Moylan, Literature review of metal additive manufacturing defects. 2018: US Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology ….
5. Athaib, N.H., A.H. Haleem, and B. Al-Zubaidy. A review of Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) of Aluminium Composite, Process, Classification, Advantages, Challenges, and Application. in Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2021. IOP Publishing.
6. Standard, A., Standard terminology for additive manufacturing technologies. ASTM International F2792-12a, 2012.
7. Jin, W., et al., Wire arc additive manufacturing of stainless steels: a review. Applied sciences, 2020. 10(5): p. 1563.
8. Liu, P., et al., The impact of additive manufacturing in the aircraft spare parts supply chain: supply chain operation reference (scor) model based analysis. Production Planning & Control, 2014. 25(13-14): p. 1169-1181.
9. Frazier, W.E., Metal additive manufacturing: a review. Journal of Materials Engineering and performance, 2014. 23(6): p. 1917-1928.
10. Sames, W.J., et al., The metallurgy and processing science of metal additive manufacturing. International materials reviews, 2016. 61(5): p. 315-360.
11. Das, S., D.L. Bourell, and S. Babu, Metallic materials for 3D printing. Mrs Bulletin, 2016. 41(10): p. 729-741.
12. Gokuldoss, P.K., S. Kolla, and J. Eckert, Additive manufacturing processes: Selective laser melting, electron beam melting and binder jetting—Selection guidelines. materials, 2017. 10(6): p. 672.
13. Gibson, I., et al., Materials for additive manufacturing, in Additive Manufacturing Technologies. 2021, Springer. p. 379-428.
14. Thapliyal, S., Challenges associated with the wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of aluminum alloys. Materials Research Express, 2019. 6(11): p. 112006.
15. Yilmaz, O. and A.A. Ugla, Shaped metal deposition technique in additive manufacturing: A review. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 2016. 230(10): p. 1781-1798.
16. Warsi, R., K.H. Kazmi, and M. Chandra, Mechanical properties of wire and arc additive manufactured component deposited by a CNC controlled GMAW. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2021.
17. Xu, F., et al., Realisation of a multi-sensor framework for process monitoring of the wire arc additive manufacturing in producing Ti-6Al-4V parts. International Journal of Computer Integrated Manufacturing, 2018. 31(8): p. 785-798.
18. Rabbi, M.S., et al., ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY-CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN COVID-19 PANDEMIC TIMES. HUMANIDADES E TECNOLOGIA (FINOM), 2020. 25(1): p. 185-199.
19. Wu, B., et al., A review of the wire arc additive manufacturing of metals: properties, defects and quality improvement. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 2018. 35: p. 127-139.
20. Kok, Y., et al., Anisotropy and heterogeneity of microstructure and mechanical properties in metal additive manufacturing: A critical review. Materials & Design, 2018. 139: p. 565-586.
21. Singh, P., et al., Additive manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V alloy by metal fused filament fabrication (MF3): Producing parts comparable to that of metal injection molding. Progress in additive manufacturing, 2021. 6(4): p. 593-606.
22. Simpson, J., et al., Considerations for application of additive manufacturing to nuclear reactor core components. 2019, Oak Ridge National Lab.(ORNL), Oak Ridge, TN (United States).
23. Han, C., et al., Recent advances on high‐entropy alloys for 3D printing. Advanced Materials, 2020. 32(26): p. 1903855.
24. Du Plessis, A., I. Yadroitsava, and I. Yadroitsev, Effects of defects on mechanical properties in metal additive manufacturing: A review focusing on X-ray tomography insights. Materials & Design, 2020. 187: p. 108385.
25. Brennan, M., J. Keist, and T. Palmer, Defects in Metal Additive Manufacturing Processes. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 2021. 30(7): p. 4808-4818.
26. Belotti, L.P., et al., Microstructural characterisation of thick-walled wire arc additively manufactured stainless steel. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2022. 299: p. 117373.
27. Ghaffari, M., et al., Effect of solidification defects and HAZ softening on the anisotropic mechanical properties of a wire arc additive-manufactured low-carbon low-alloy steel part. Jom, 2019. 71(11): p. 4215-4224.
28. Li, B., et al., Low-Roughness-Surface Additive Manufacturing of Metal-Wire Feeding with Small Power. Materials, 2021. 14(15): p. 4265.
29. Guessasma, S., et al., Challenges of additive manufacturing technologies from an optimisation perspective. International Journal for Simulation and Multidisciplinary Design Optimization, 2015. 6: p. A9.
30. Dhinakaran, V., et al., Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) process of nickel based superalloys–A review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2020. 21: p. 920-925.
31. Benakis, M., D. Costanzo, and A. Patran, Current mode effects on weld bead geometry and heat affected zone in pulsed wire arc additive manufacturing of Ti-6-4 and Inconel 718. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 2020. 60: p. 61-74.
32. Dinovitzer, M., et al., Effect of wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process parameters on bead geometry and microstructure. Additive Manufacturing, 2019. 26: p. 138-146.
33. Gu, W., E. Styger, and D.H. Warner, Assessment of Additive Manufacturing for Increasing Sustainability and Productivity of Smallholder Agriculture. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing, 2020. 7(6): p. 300-310.
34. Jackson, M.A., et al., Energy consumption model for additive-subtractive manufacturing processes with case study. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology, 2018. 5(4): p. 459-466.
35. Ding, D., et al., Wire-feed additive manufacturing of metal components: technologies, developments and future interests. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2015. 81(1): p. 465-481.
36. Jackson, M.A., et al., A comparison of energy consumption in wire-based and powder-based additive-subtractive manufacturing. Procedia Manufacturing, 2016. 5: p. 989-1005.
37. Singh, S.R. and P. Khanna, Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM): A new process to shape engineering materials. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2021. 44: p. 118-128.
38. Jafari, D., T.H. Vaneker, and I. Gibson, Wire and arc additive manufacturing: Opportunities and challenges to control the quality and accuracy of manufactured parts. Materials & Design, 2021. 202: p. 109471.
39. Singh, S., S. kumar Sharma, and D.W. Rathod, A review on process planning strategies and challenges of WAAM. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2021. 47: p. 6564-6575.
40. Rodrigues, T.A., et al., Current status and perspectives on wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). Materials, 2019. 12(7): p. 1121.
41. Busachi, A., et al. Modelling applications of additive manufacturing in defence support services: introducing the AM–decision support system. in NATO STO Meeting Proceedings STO-MPAVT-267-3B. 2018.
42. Korzhyk, V., et al. Welding technology in additive manufacturing processes of 3D objects. in Materials Science Forum. 2017. Trans Tech Publ.
43. Venturini, G., et al., Optimization of WAAM deposition patterns for T-crossing features. Procedia Cirp, 2016. 55: p. 95-100.
44. Klobcara, D., et al., WAAM and Other Unconventional Metal Additive Manufacturing Technologies. Adv. Technol. Mater, 2020. 45: p. 1-9.
45. Rodrigues, T.A., et al., Ultracold-Wire and arc additive manufacturing (UC-WAAM). Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2021. 296: p. 117196.
46. Lin, Z., et al., Microstructure and mechanical properties of medium carbon steel deposits obtained via wire and arc additive manufacturing using metal-cored wire. Metals, 2019. 9(6): p. 673.
47. Srivastava, S., et al., Measurement and mitigation of residual stress in wire-arc additive manufacturing: A review of macro-scale continuum modelling approach. Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering, 2021. 28(5): p. 3491-3515.
48. Xia, C., et al., A review on wire arc additive manufacturing: Monitoring, control and a framework of automated system. Journal of Manufacturing Systems, 2020. 57: p. 31-45.
49. Norrish, J., J. Polden, and I.M. Richardson, A Review of Wire Arc Additive manufacturing: Development, Principles, Process Physics, Implementation and Current Status. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 2021.
50. Paskual, A., P. Álvarez, and A. Suárez, Study on arc welding processes for high deposition rate additive manufacturing. Procedia Cirp, 2018. 68: p. 358-362.
51. Li, J.Z., et al., Review of wire arc additive manufacturing for 3D metal printing. International Journal of Automation Technology, 2019. 13(3): p. 346-353.
52. Artaza, T., et al., Wire arc additive manufacturing Ti6Al4V aeronautical parts using plasma arc welding: Analysis of heat-treatment processes in different atmospheres. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2020. 9(6): p. 15454-15466.
53. Li, N., et al., Self-adaptive control system for additive manufacturing using double electrode micro plasma arc welding. Chinese Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 2021. 34(1): p. 1-14.
54. Busachi, A., et al., Designing a WAAM based manufacturing system for defence applications. Procedia Cirp, 2015. 37: p. 48-53.
55. Pan, Z., et al., Arc welding processes for additive manufacturing: a review. Transactions on intelligent welding manufacturing, 2018: p. 3-24.
56. Lopez, A.B., et al., Phased array ultrasonic inspection of metal additive manufacturing parts. Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation, 2019. 38(3): p. 1-11.
57. Lopez, A., et al., Non-destructive testing application of radiography and ultrasound for wire and arc additive manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing, 2018. 21: p. 298-306.
58. Li, Y., et al., A defect detection system for wire arc additive manufacturing using incremental learning. Journal of Industrial Information Integration, 2021: p. 100291.
59. Arana, M., et al., Strategies to reduce porosity in Al-Mg WAAM parts and their impact on mechanical properties. Metals, 2021. 11(3): p. 524.
60. Gierth, M., et al., Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of aluminum alloy AlMg5Mn with energy-reduced gas metal arc welding (GMAW). Materials, 2020. 13(12): p. 2671.
61. Panchenko, O., et al., Gas Metal Arc Welding Modes in Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V. Materials, 2021. 14(9): p. 2457.
62. Baufeld, B., O. Van der Biest, and R. Gault, Additive manufacturing of Ti–6Al–4V components by shaped metal deposition: microstructure and mechanical properties. Materials & Design, 2010. 31: p. S106-S111.
63. Tian, Y., et al., Microstructure and mechanical properties of wire and arc additive manufactured Ti-6Al-4V and AlSi5 dissimilar alloys using cold metal transfer welding. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 2019. 46: p. 337-344.
64. Brandl, E., et al., Additive manufactured Ti-6Al-4V using welding wire: comparison of laser and arc beam deposition and evaluation with respect to aerospace material specifications. Phys. Procedia, 2010. 5(Pt 2): p. 595-606.
65. Martina, F., et al., Investigation of the benefits of plasma deposition for the additive layer manufacture of Ti–6Al–4V. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2012. 212(6): p. 1377-1386.
66. Lin, J., et al., Heterogeneous microstructure evolution in Ti-6Al-4V alloy thin-wall components deposited by plasma arc additive manufacturing. Materials & Design, 2018. 157: p. 200-210.
67. Wang, K., et al., Microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of Inconel 718 superalloy thin wall fabricated by pulsed plasma arc additive manufacturing. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2020. 819: p. 152936.
68. Gu, J., et al., The strengthening effect of inter-layer cold working and post-deposition heat treatment on the additively manufactured Al–6.3 Cu alloy. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2016. 651: p. 18-26.
69. Patel, M., et al., Development and implementation of wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) based on pulse spray GMAW for aluminum alloy (AlSi7Mg). Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, 2021. 74(5): p. 1129-1140.
70. Vimal, K., M.N. Srinivas, and S. Rajak, Wire arc additive manufacturing of aluminium alloys: a review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2021. 41: p. 1139-1145.
71. Dong, B., et al., Fabrication of copper-rich Cu-Al alloy using the wire-arc additive manufacturing process. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 2017. 48(6): p. 3143-3151.
72. Zeli, W. and Y. Zhang, A review of aluminum alloy fabricated by different processes of wire arc additive manufacturing. Materials Science, 2021. 27(1): p. 18-26.
73. Çam, G., Prospects of producing aluminum parts by wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). Materials Today: Proceedings, 2022.
74. Queguineur, A., et al., Evaluation of tandem controlled short-circuit GMAW for improved deposition in additive manufacture of large Nickel Aluminium Bronze naval components. Welding in the World, 2020. 64(8): p. 1389-1395.
75. Antonello, M.G., et al., Effect of electromagnetic arc constriction applied in GTAW-based wire arc additive manufacturing on walls’ geometry and microstructure. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 2021. 71: p. 156-167.
76. Artaza, T., et al., Influence of heat input on the formation of laves phases and hot cracking in plasma arc welding (PAW) additive manufacturing of inconel 718. Metals, 2020. 10(6): p. 771.
77. Bhujangrao, T., et al., High-temperature mechanical properties of IN718 alloy: comparison of additive manufactured and wrought samples. Crystals, 2020. 10(8): p. 689.
78. Tripathi, U., et al., Effect of build direction on the microstructure evolution and their mechanical properties using GTAW based wire arc additive manufacturing. CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology, 2022. 37: p. 103-109.
79. Manurung, Y.H., et al., Analysis of material property models on WAAM distortion using nonlinear numerical computation and experimental verification with P-GMAW. Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, 2021. 21(1): p. 1-13.
80. Srivastava, M., et al., Analysis of Temperature Concentration During Single Layer Metal Deposition Using GMAW-WAAM: A Case Study, in High-Performance Composite Structures. 2022, Springer. p. 179-189.
81. Kim, J., et al., Effect of filler metal type on microstructure and mechanical properties of fabricated nial bronze alloy using wire arc additive manufacturing system. Metals, 2021. 11(3): p. 513.
82. Gu, J., et al., Deformation microstructures and strengthening mechanisms for the wire+ arc additively manufactured Al-Mg4. 5Mn alloy with inter-layer rolling. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2018. 712: p. 292-301.
83. Dharmendra, C., et al., Microstructural evolution and mechanical behavior of nickel aluminum bronze Cu-9Al-4Fe-4Ni-1Mn fabricated through wire-arc additive manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing, 2019. 30: p. 100872.
84. Shen, C., et al., Fabrication of iron-rich Fe–Al intermetallics using the wire-arc additive manufacturing process. Additive Manufacturing, 2015. 7: p. 20-26.
85. Wang, L., et al., Fabrication of γ-TiAl intermetallic alloy using the twin-wire plasma arc additive manufacturing process: microstructure evolution and mechanical properties. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2021. 812: p. 141056.
86. Gu, J.L., et al. The influence of wire properties on the quality and performance of wire+ arc additive manufactured aluminium parts. in Advanced Materials Research. 2015. Trans Tech Publ.
87. Hauser, T., et al., Porosity in wire arc additive manufacturing of aluminium alloys. Additive Manufacturing, 2021. 41: p. 101993.
88. Anyalebechi, P.N., Hydrogen-induced gas porosity formation in Al–4.5 wt% Cu–1.4 wt% Mg alloy. Journal of Materials Science, 2013. 48(15): p. 5342-5353.
89. Fu, R., et al., Hot-wire arc additive manufacturing of aluminum alloy with reduced porosity and high deposition rate. Materials & Design, 2021. 199: p. 109370.
90. Gu, J., et al., Micropore evolution in additively manufactured aluminum alloys under heat treatment and inter-layer rolling. Materials & Design, 2020. 186: p. 108288.
91. Ryan, E., et al., The influence of build parameters and wire batch on porosity of wire and arc additive manufactured aluminium alloy 2319. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2018. 262: p. 577-584.
92. Gu, J., et al., The effect of inter-layer cold working and post-deposition heat treatment on porosity in additively manufactured aluminum alloys. Journal of materials processing technology, 2016. 230: p. 26-34.
93. Kurakin, A.I., et al. Influence of Surfacing Modes on the Formation of Pores in the Deposited Metal Produced by Wire Arc Additive Method (WAAM) Using Al-Mg Alloy. in Materials Science Forum. 2021. Trans Tech Publ.
94. Lu, T., et al., Hot-wire arc additive manufacturing Ti–6.5 Al–2Zr–1Mo–1V titanium alloy: Pore characterization, microstructural evolution, and mechanical properties. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2020. 817: p. 153334.
95. Winterkorn, R., A. Pittner, and M. Rethmeier, Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing with Novel Al-Mg-Si Filler Wire—Assessment of Weld Quality and Mechanical Properties. Metals, 2021. 11(8): p. 1243.
96. Bandyopadhyay, A. and K.D. Traxel, Invited review article: Metal-additive manufacturing—Modeling strategies for application-optimized designs. Additive manufacturing, 2018. 22: p. 758-774.
97. Cunningham, C., et al., Invited review article: Strategies and processes for high quality wire arc additive manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing, 2018. 22: p. 672-686.
98. Wang, D., et al., Reducing porosity and refining grains for arc additive manufacturing aluminum alloy by adjusting arc pulse frequency and current. Materials, 2018. 11(8): p. 1344.
99. Derekar, K.S., et al., Effect of pulsed metal inert gas (pulsed-MIG) and cold metal transfer (CMT) techniques on hydrogen dissolution in wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of aluminium. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2020. 107(1): p. 311-331.
100. Derekar, K., et al. Influence of interpass temperature on wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of aluminium alloy components. in MATEC Web of Conferences. 2019. EDP Sciences.
101. Cong, B., J. Ding, and S. Williams, Effect of arc mode in cold metal transfer process on porosity of additively manufactured Al-6.3% Cu alloy. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2015. 76(9): p. 1593-1606.
102. Bai, J., et al. Porosity evolution in additively manufactured aluminium alloy during high temperature exposure. in IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 2017. IOP Publishing.
103. Fang, X., et al., Microstructure evolution of wire-arc additively manufactured 2319 aluminum alloy with interlayer hammering. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2021. 800: p. 140168.
104. Zhang, C., M. Gao, and X. Zeng, Workpiece vibration augmented wire arc additive manufacturing of high strength aluminum alloy. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2019. 271: p. 85-92.
105. Murav’ev, V., et al., Effect of the quality of filler wire on the formation of pores in welding of titanium alloys. Welding International, 2008. 22(12): p. 853-858.
106. Derekar, K., A review of wire arc additive manufacturing and advances in wire arc additive manufacturing of aluminium. Materials science and technology, 2018. 34(8): p. 895-916.
107. Wang, S., et al., The influence of heat input on the microstructure and properties of wire-arc-additive-manufactured Al-Cu-Sn alloy deposits. Metals, 2020. 10(1): p. 79.
108. Béraud, N., et al., An indicator of porosity through simulation of melt pool volume in aluminum wire arc additive manufacturing. Mechanics & Industry, 2022. 23: p. 1.
109. Derekar, K., Aspects of Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) of Alumnium Alloy 5183. 2020, Coventry University.
110. Gu, J., et al. Wire+ arc additive manufacturing of aluminum. in 2014 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium. 2014. University of Texas at Austin.
111. Henckell, P., et al., Reduction of energy input in wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) with gas metal arc welding (GMAW). Materials, 2020. 13(11): p. 2491.
112. Reisch, R., et al. Distance-based multivariate anomaly detection in wire arc additive manufacturing. in 2020 19th IEEE International Conference on Machine Learning and Applications (ICMLA). 2020. IEEE.
113. Chen, X., et al., A review on wire-arc additive manufacturing: typical defects, detection approaches, and multisensor data fusion-based model. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2021. 117(3): p. 707-727.
114. Xie, C., et al., Defect-correlated fatigue resistance of additively manufactured Al-Mg4. 5Mn alloy with in situ micro-rolling. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2021. 291: p. 117039.
115. Hu, Y., et al., The effect of manufacturing defects on the fatigue life of selective laser melted Ti-6Al-4V structures. Materials & Design, 2020. 192: p. 108708.
116. Gong, H., et al., Influence of defects on mechanical properties of Ti–6Al–4 V components produced by selective laser melting and electron beam melting. Materials & Design, 2015. 86: p. 545-554.
117. Rihar, G. and M. Uran, Lack of fusion characterisation of indications. Welding in the World, 2006. 50(1): p. 35-39.
118. Saresh, N., M.G. Pillai, and J. Mathew, Investigations into the effects of electron beam welding on thick Ti–6Al–4V titanium alloy. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2007. 192: p. 83-88.
119. Everton, S.K., et al., Review of in-situ process monitoring and in-situ metrology for metal additive manufacturing. Materials & Design, 2016. 95: p. 431-445.
120. Mukherjee, T. and T. DebRoy, Mitigation of lack of fusion defects in powder bed fusion additive manufacturing. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 2018. 36: p. 442-449.
121. Di, W., et al., Study on energy input and its influences on single-track, multi-track, and multi-layer in SLM. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2012. 58(9): p. 1189-1199.
122. Buchbinder, D., et al., High power selective laser melting (HP SLM) of aluminum parts. Physics Procedia, 2011. 12: p. 271-278.
123. Tammas-Williams, S., et al., XCT analysis of the influence of melt strategies on defect population in Ti–6Al–4V components manufactured by Selective Electron Beam Melting. Materials Characterization, 2015. 102: p. 47-61.
124. Darvish, K., Z. Chen, and T. Pasang, Reducing lack of fusion during selective laser melting of CoCrMo alloy: Effect of laser power on geometrical features of tracks. Materials & Design, 2016. 112: p. 357-366.
125. Jovanovic, M., J. Grum, and M. Uran. Influence of lack-of-fusion defects on load capacity of MAG welded joints. in 17th World Conference on Nondestructive Testing, Shanghai-China. 2008. Citeseer.
126. Marinelli, G., et al., Development of Wire+ Arc Additive Manufacturing for the production of large-scale unalloyed tungsten components, ArXiv. Org.(2019). 1902.
127. Cheng, Y., et al., Effect of TiC/TiC–TiB2 on microstructure and mechanical properties of spray formed 7055 aluminum alloy TIG welded joints. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2021. 15: p. 1667-1677.
128. Sokoluk, M., et al., Nanoparticle-enabled phase control for arc welding of unweldable aluminum alloy 7075. Nature communications, 2019. 10(1): p. 1-8.
129. Huang, T., et al., Appropriate amount of TiB2 particles causes the ductile fracture of the un-weldable spray-formed 7055 aluminium alloy TIG-welded joint. Materials Research Express, 2021. 8(9): p. 096512.
130. Murali, N., et al., Gas-Tungsten Arc welding of dissimilar aluminum alloys with Nano-Treated filler. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 2021. 143(8).
131. Zhang, G., C. Xiao, and M. Taheri, Effect of Nd: YAG pulsed laser welding process on the liquation and strain-age cracking in GTD-111 superalloy. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 2020. 52: p. 66-78.
132. Taheri, M., et al., Relationship between solidification and liquation cracks in the joining of GTD-111 nickel-based superalloy by Nd: YAG pulsed-laser welding. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2021. 15: p. 5635-5649.
133. Albannai, A., et al., Effects of tandem side-by-side GTAW welds on centerline solidification cracking of AA2024. Manufacturing Technology, 2021. 21(2): p. 151-163.
134. Agarwal, G., et al., Evaluation of solidification cracking susceptibility during laser welding in advanced high strength automotive steels. Materials & Design, 2019. 183: p. 108104.
135. Seow, C.E., et al., Effect of crack-like defects on the fracture behaviour of Wire+ Arc Additively Manufactured nickel-base Alloy 718. Additive Manufacturing, 2020. 36: p. 101578.
136. Aucott, L., et al., Initiation and growth kinetics of solidification cracking during welding of steel. Scientific reports, 2017. 7(1): p. 1-10.
137. Langelandsvik, G., et al., Review of Aluminum Alloy Development for Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing. Materials, 2021. 14(18): p. 5370.
138. Kang, M., H.N. Han, and C. Kim, Microstructure and solidification crack susceptibility of Al 6014 molten alloy subjected to a spatially oscillated laser beam. Materials, 2018. 11(4): p. 648.
139. Kou, S. and Y. Le, Grain structure and solidification cracking in oscillated arc welds of 5052 aluminum alloy. Metallurgical Transactions A, 1985. 16(7): p. 1345-1352.
140. Albannai, A.I., et al., Improving Centerline Solidification Crack Resistivity of AA 2024 Using Tandem Side-by-Side GTAW Technique. Materials Performance and Characterization, 2019. 8(4): p. 541-554.
141. Yu, P., J. Morrow, and S. Kou, Resistance of austenitic stainless steels to ductility-Dip cracking: mechanisms. Weld J, 2021. 100: p. 291s-301s.
142. Chen, Y., et al., Characterization of heat affected zone liquation cracking in laser additive manufacturing of Inconel 718. Materials & Design, 2016. 90: p. 586-594.
143. Chen, S., et al., Thermal–microstructural analysis of the mechanism of liquation cracks in wire-arc additive manufacturing of Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloy. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2022. 16: p. 1260-1271.
144. Zhang, J., D. Weckman, and Y. Zhou, Effects of temporal pulse shaping on cracking susceptibility of 6061-T6 aluminum Nd: YAG laser welds. WELDING JOURNAL-NEW YORK-, 2008. 87(1): p. 18.
145. DebRoy, T., et al., Additive manufacturing of metallic components–process, structure and properties. Progress in Materials Science, 2018. 92: p. 112-224.
146. Colegrove, P.A., et al., Microstructure and residual stress improvement in wire and arc additively manufactured parts through high-pressure rolling. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2013. 213(10): p. 1782-1791.
147. Lee, Y., et al., Effect of interlayer cooling time, constraint and tool path strategy on deformation of large components made by laser metal deposition with wire. Applied Sciences, 2019. 9(23): p. 5115.
148. Abbaszadeh, M., et al., Numerical investigation of the effect of rolling on the localized stress and strain induction for wire+ arc additive manufactured structures. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 2019. 28(8): p. 4931-4942.
149. Price, J.W., et al., Comparison of experimental and theoretical residual stresses in welds: The issue of gauge volume. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 2008. 50(3): p. 513-521.
150. Herzog, D., et al., Additive manufacturing of metals. Acta Materialia, 2016. 117: p. 371-392.
151. Wu, B., et al., Mitigation of thermal distortion in wire arc additively manufactured Ti6Al4V part using active interpass cooling. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, 2019. 24(5): p. 484-494.
152. Bermingham, M., et al., Optimising the mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V components produced by wire+ arc additive manufacturing with post-process heat treatments. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2018. 753: p. 247-255.
153. Wu, Q., et al., Residual stresses in wire-arc additive manufacturing–Hierarchy of influential variables. Additive Manufacturing, 2020. 35: p. 101355.
154. Chaturvedi, M., et al., Wire arc additive manufacturing: Review on recent findings and challenges in industrial applications and materials characterization. Metals, 2021. 11(6): p. 939.
155. Panicker, C.J., K.R. Surya, and V. Senthilkumar, Novel process parameters based approach for reducing residual stresses in WAAM. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2022.
156. Zhang, C., et al., Influence of wire-arc additive manufacturing path planning strategy on the residual stress status in one single buildup layer. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2020. 111(3): p. 797-806.
157. Ravisankar, A., et al., Influence of welding speed and power on residual stress during gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) of thin sections with constant heat input: a study using numerical simulation and experimental validation. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 2014. 16(2): p. 200-211.
158. Vazquez, L., et al., Influence of Post-Deposition Heat Treatments on the Microstructure and Tensile Properties of Ti-6Al-4V Parts Manufactured by CMT-WAAM. Metals, 2021. 11(8): p. 1161.
159. Martina, F., et al. Residual stress reduction in high pressure interpass rolled wire+ arc additive manufacturing Ti-6Al-4V components. in 2014 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium. 2014. University of Texas at Austin.
160. Hönnige, J., et al., Control of residual stress and distortion in aluminium wire+ arc additive manufacture with rolling. Additive Manufacturing, 2018. 22: p. 775-783.
161. Sun, R., et al., Microstructure, residual stress and tensile properties control of wire-arc additive manufactured 2319 aluminum alloy with laser shock peening. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2018. 747: p. 255-265.
162. Shen, C., et al., Neutron diffraction residual stress determinations in Fe3Al based iron aluminide components fabricated using wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). Additive Manufacturing, 2019. 29: p. 100774.