Abstract :

Mitigation of the global environmental challenge of climate change requires the elimination of carbon emissions. Agricultural greenhouses are energy intensive production systems based mainly on fossil fuels. However, several renewable energy technologies are reliable and cost-effective and they could be used in them for heat and power generation. The possibility of using a solar photovoltaic and a battery storage system meeting the electricity demand in a grid-connected greenhouse in Crete, Greece which already uses locally produced solid biomass to cover the heat demand has been investigated. It has been estimated that the use of a solar photovoltaic system with nominal power 31.29 kW_p  generating 48,500 kWh/year can meet the annual power demand in an existing greenhouse with covered surface 3,300 m² in Crete. The cost of the solar photovoltaic system is estimated at 40,000 €. The capacity of Lithium-ion batteries for achieving one day power autonomy in the greenhouse has been estimated at 147.64 kWh while their cost is estimated at 63,333 €. The combined use of a solar photovoltaic system meeting the electricity demand and solid biomass meeting the heat demand results in a net-zero emissions greenhouse. Both renewable energy technologies are mature and economically attractive and they are currently used in Crete in many sectors. The current work indicates that decarbonization of agricultural greenhouses in Crete replacing the use of fossil fuels with renewable energies is feasible. The results of the present study could be used by all stakeholders of the greenhouse industry.

---

Keywords :

agricultural greenhouses, carbon emissions, Crete-Greece, electric batteries, renewable energies

---

References :

1. Djevic, M. & Dimitrijevic, A. Energy consumption for different greenhouse constructions. Energy, 34, 2009, pp. 1325-1331. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2009.03.008
2. Paris, B., Vandorou, F., Balafoutis, A.T., Vaiopoulos, K., Kyriakarakos, G., Manolakos, D. &Papadakis, G. Energy Use in Greenhouses in the EU: A Review Recommending Energy Efficiency Measures and Renewable Energy Sources Adoption. Applied Sciences, 12, 2022, 5150. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12105150
3. Vourdoubas, J. Creation of net-zero carbon emission greenhouses due to energy use in Mediterranean region, Is it feasible? Journal of Agriculture and Crops, 6(7), 2020, pp. 89-95. https://doi.org/10.32861/jac.67.89.95
4. Aschilean, I., Rasoi, G., Raboaca, M.S., Filote, C. & Culcer, M. Design and concept of an energy system based on renewable sources for greenhouse sustainable agriculture. Energies, 11, 2018, 1201. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en11051201
5. Godlonton, A., Borain, C.M., Isafiade, A.J., Moller, K. & Chitsiga, T. Synthesis and optimization of an integrated renewable energy and greenhouse network. Process Integration and Optimization for Sustainability, 8, 2024, pp. 791-811. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41660-023-00386-z
6. Riahi, J., Vergura, S., Mezghani, D. & Mami, A. Smart and Renewable Energy System to Power a Temperature-Controlled Greenhouse. Energies, 14, 2021, 5499. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175499
7. Esen, M. & Yuksel, T. Experimental evaluation of using various renewable energy sources for heating a greenhouse. Energy and Buildings, 65, 2013, pp. 340-351. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.06.018
8. Vourdoubas, J. Use of low and zero carbon energy technologies in agricultural greenhouses. Archives of Agriculture Research and Technology, 3(1), 2022, pp. 1032-1034. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362843461_Use_of_Low_and_Zero_Carbon_EnergyTechnologies_in_Agricultural_Greenhouses
9. Soussi, A., Zero, E., Quammi, A., Zejli, D., Zahmoun, S. & Sacile, R. Smart greenhouse farming: a review towards near zero energy consumption. Discover Cities, 2, 2025, 55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44327-025-00096-w
10. Livina, V., Cheales-Norman, H., Coleman, M., Gardiner, T. et al. Quantifying carbon emissions: Scope 1 (direct), 2 (indirect) and 3 (life-cycle). International Journal of Metrology and Quality Engineering, 17, 2026, 8. https://doi.org/10.1051/ijmqe/2026001
11. What are sustainability scope 1, 2 and 3 emissions? 2023. Available from: https://www.grantthornton.global/en/insights/articles/sustainability-scope-1-2-and-3-emissions/
12. Gholami, M., Arefi, A., Hasan, A., Li, C. & Muyeen, S.M. Enhancing energy autonomy of greenhouses with semi-transparent photovoltaic systems through a comparative study of battery storage systems. Scientific Reports, Nature portfolio, 15, 2025, 2213. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-85418-z
13. Vourdoubas, J. Use of solar photovoltaic systems and heat pumps for achieving net-zero carbon emission greenhouses due to energy use: A case study in Crete, Greece. American Academic Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology and Sciences, 94(1), 2023, pp. 67-80. Available from: https://asrjetsjournal.org/American_Scientific_Journal/article/view/9186
14. Ngoy, K.R., Lukong, V.I., Yoro, K.O., Makambo, J.B. et al. Lithium-ion batteries and the future of sustainable energy: A comprehensive review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 223, 2025, 115971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2025.115971
15. Hasan, M.M., Haque, R., Jahirul, M.I., Rasul, M.G. et al. Advancing energy storage: The future trajectory of lithium-ion battery technologies. Journal of Energy Storage, 120, 2025, 116511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2025.116511
16. Crabtree, G., Kocs, E. & Trahey, L. The energy storage frontier: Lithium-ion batteries and beyond. MRS Bulletin, 40, 2015, pp. 1067-1076. https://doi.org/10.1557/mrs.2015.259
17. Kebede, A.A., Goosemans, T., Messagie, M., Jemal, T. et al. Techno-economic analysis of lithium-ion and lead-acid batteries in stationary storage application. Journal of Energy Storage, 40, 2021, 102748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.102748
18. Lyu, P., Liu, X.,  Qu, J., Zhao, J., Huo, Y.,  Qu, Z., & Rao, Z. Recent advances of thermal safety of lithium-ion battery for energy storage. Energy Storage Materials, 31, 2020, pp. 195-220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2020.06.042.
19. Guo, K., Wang, l. & Zeng, T. Enhancing grid stability and sustainability: Integrating Lithium-ion batteries with solar energy for large scale applications. Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology, 80, 2023, pp. 368-373. https://doi.org/10.54097/9j0hx207
20. Abdel-Ghang, A.M. & Al-Helal, I.M. Solar energy utilization by a greenhouse: General relations. Renewable Energy, 36, 2011, pp. 189-196. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2010.06.020
21. Jamshidi, F., Ghiasi, M., Mehrandezh, M., Wang, Z. & Paranjape, R. Optimizing Energy Consumption in Agricultural Greenhouses: A Smart Energy Management Approach. Smart Cities, 7, 2024, pp. 859–879. https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7020036
22. Maraveas, C., Karavas, C.-S., Loukatos, D., Bartzanas, T., Arvanitis, K.G. & Symeonaki, E. Agricultural Greenhouses: Resource Management Technologies and Perspectives for Zero Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Agriculture, 13, 2023, 1464. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13071464
23. Espitia, J.J., Velázquez, F.A., Rodriguez, J., Gomez, L., Baeza, E., Aguilar-Rodríguez, C.E., Flores-Velazquez, J. & Villagran, E. Solar Energy Applications in Protected Agriculture: A Technical and Bibliometric Review of Greenhouse Systems and Solar Technologies. Agronomy, 14, 2024, 2791. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14122791
24. Lee, C.-G., Cho, L.-H., Kim, S.-J., Park, S.-Y. & Kim, D.-H. Comparative Analysis of Combined Heating Systems Involving the Use of Renewable Energy for Greenhouse Heating. Energies, 14, 2021, 6603. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206603
25. Rosenfeld, S., Mhanna, J., Bopp, G., Müller, M., Trittler, S., Stortz, F., Geze, N., Martell, C., Ortiz, J., Rodden, P. (2025). Stortz, F. (Ed.), Li-Ion Battery Systems in Off-Grid Applications (Report No. T18-04:2025). IEA PVPS Task 18. https://iea-pvps.org/key-topics/t18-li-ion-battery-systems-2025/
26. Behroozeh, S., Hayati, D. & Karami, E. Factors influencing energy consumption efficiency in greenhouse cropping systems. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 27, 2024, pp. 27531-27566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04851-8
27. Vourdoubas, J. Present and future uses of biomass for energy generation in the island of Crete, Greece. Journal of Energy and Power Sources, 2(4), 2015, pp. 158-163. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362715780_Present_and_Future_Uses_of_Biomass_for_Energy_Generation_in_the_Island_of_Crete-Greece
28. Neira, D.P., Montiel, M.S., Capeza, M.D. & Reigada, A. Energy use and carbon footprint of the tomato production in heated multi-tunnel greenhouses in Almeria within an exporting agri-food system context. Science of the Total Environment, 628-629, 2018, pp. 1627-1636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.127
29. Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement, 2022, Teske, S. (editor), Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99177-7
30. Rousis, I., Kakabuki, I., Stavropulos, A., Mavroeidis, A. et al. Carbon footprint analysis of processing tomato cultivation in Greece. Bulletin of University of Agricultural sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca Horticulture, 80(2), 2023, pp. 76-79. DOI:15835/buasvmcn-hort:2023.0021
31. Kaur, A., Sonawane, V. & Rosha, P. Energy efficiency optimization strategies for greenhouse-based crop cultivation: A review. The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 102(3), 2024, pp. 1051-1065. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjce.25131
32. Chamara, R.M.S.R. et al. (2023). Photovoltaic-Integrated Greenhouses for Sustainable Crop Production in the Tropics. In: Rakshit, A., Biswas, A., Sarkar, D., Meena, V.S., Datta, R. (eds) Handbook of Energy Management in Agriculture. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-7736-7_16-1