Germanium Processing from Primary and Secondary Resources: Occurrence, Extraction Technologies, and Circular Economy Perspectives

Vol 9 No 5 (2026): Volume 09 Issue 05 May 2026

Article Date Published : 15 May 2026 | Page No.: 2535-2565 | Google Scholar | Crossref doi for this article

Abstract :

Germanium is a critical technology metal used in fiber optics, infrared optics, photovoltaics, semiconductors, and emerging energy systems. Despite its strategic importance, primary germanium resources are limited, and global production remains heavily dependent on by-product recovery from zinc processing, coal fly ash, and copper-related residues. This review critically examines the occurrence, mineralogy, and distribution of germanium in both primary and secondary resources, emphasizing the growing importance of urban mining and industrial waste valorization. Current recovery technologies are analyzed, including pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, chlorination, volatilization, solvent extraction, ion exchange, and biohydrometallurgical routes. Particular attention is given to the efficiency of selective separation, impurity behavior, energy demand, environmental constraints, process integration, and scale-up limitations. The review highlights that germanium dissolution is often less challenging than downstream purification and selective recovery from chemically complex, highly dilute process streams. Major technological barriers include ultra-low Ge concentrations, impurity-rich matrices, solvent degradation, reagent consumption, and the limited industrial maturity of several emerging recovery technologies. Recent advances in secondary recovery from electronic waste, coal-derived residues, and metallurgical by-products are critically evaluated within the broader context of circular economy strategies and integrated multi-metal recovery systems. The analysis indicates that future germanium supply will depend less on primary mining expansion and more on the ability to selectively recover Ge from complex secondary resources through integrated, economically robust processing systems.

Keywords :

Circular Economy, Critical metals, Germanium, Hydrometallurgy, recycling, Secondary resources.

References :

  1. Aghazadeh, S., Bayat, S., Noaparast, M. et al. Germanium separation and purification by leaching and precipitation. J. Cent. South Univ. 23, 2214–2222 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11771-016-3279-6.
  2. Alguacil, F. J., Alonso, M., Lozano-Blanco, L. J., & Robla, J. I. (2025). Germanium recovery from zinc calcines using a hydrometallurgical procedure. Revista de Metalurgia, 61(2), e281. https://doi.org/10.3989/revmetalm.e281.1726.
  3. Alguacil, F. J., & Robla, J. I. (2024). Some recent advances in germanium recovery from various resources. Metals, 14(5), 559. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050559.
  4. Bai, J., Deng, Z., Wei, C. et al. The Effect of Silicon and Iron on Leaching Germanium in the Oxygen Pressure Leaching Process of Zinc Oxide Dust. JOM 77, 9113–9124 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-025-07738-9.
  5. Benson, S. A., Benson, A. S., Fuka, M., Kolb, E., & Theaker, N. (2024). Production of germanium and gallium concentrates for industrial processes (Technical Report). U.S. Department of Energy Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management. https://doi.org/10.2172/2341886.
  6. Bo, W., Wu, J., Miao, Z., & Wan, K. (2023). Germanium extraction from lignite using gravity separation combined with low-temperature sintering and chlorinated distillation. Separation and Purification Technology, 329, 125215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2023.125215
  7. Chen, F., Liu, F., Liao, B., Wang, J., et al. (2025). Selective separation and recovery of gallium and germanium from complex polymetallic sulfate solutions. Minerals Engineering, 234, 109758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2025.109758.
  8. Dhiman, S., & Gupta, B. (2020). Recovery of pure germanium oxide from Zener diodes using a recyclable ionic liquid Cyphos IL 104. Journal of Environmental Management, 276, 111218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111218.
  9. Di, H., Gui, Q., Yang, F., Liang, M., et al. (2021). Research on the purification of germanium residue by outfield enhancement. Chemical Engineering and Processing – Process Intensification, 161, 108293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2020.108293.
  10. Di, H., Hong, Y., Yang, K., & Zhang, L. (2024). Preparation and evaluation of germanium concentrate by ultrasonic purification of tannin germanium residue. Journal of Environmental Management, 366, 121699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.121699.
  11. Drzazga, M., Ciszewski, M., Kozłowicz, S., & Kasierot, S. (2024a). Comparison of germanium recovery from copper(II) sulfate-based solution using tertiary amine and oxime extractant. Minerals Engineering, 218(4), 108984. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2024.108984
  12. Drzazga, M., Ciszewski, M., Kozłowicz, S. et al. Leaching of liquation-feeding furnace dross as a first step for germanium recovery. BMC Res Notes 17, 180 (2024b). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-024-06832-6.
  13. Drzazga, M., Palmowski, A., Benke, G., Ciszewski, M., et al. (2021). Recovery of germanium and indium from leaching solution of germanium dross using solvent extraction with TOA, TBP and D2EHPA. Hydrometallurgy, 202, 105605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2021.105605.
  14. Dzinomwa, G., Mapani, B., Nghipulile, T., Maweja, K., Kurasha, J. T., Amwaama, M., & Chigayo, K. (2023). Mineralogical characterization of historic copper slag to guide the recovery of valuable metals: A Namibian case study. Materials, 16(18), 6126. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16186126.
  15. Ettler, V., Mihaljevič, M., Strnad, L., Kříbek, B., et al. (2022). Gallium and germanium extraction and potential recovery from metallurgical slags. Journal of Cleaner Production, 379, 134677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134677.
  16. Everest, D. A., & Salmon, J. E. (1954). Studies in the chemistry of quadrivalent germanium: Ion-exchange studies of solutions of germanates. Journal of the Chemical Society (Resumed), 2438–2443. https://doi.org/10.1039/JR9540002438.
  17. Fan, Y., Tian, J., Fei, X., Yang, J., et al. (2025). Targeted recovery of germanium from coal fly ash using quaternary ammonium salt extractant. ACS Sustainable Resource Management, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssusresmgt.5c00485.
  18. Fleitlikh, I. Y., Grigorieva, N. Y., & Logutenko, O. A. (2021). Extraction behavior of germanium in Kelex 100 and LIX 63 systems. ChemistrySelect, 6(17), 4285–4291. https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.202100260.
  19. Geng, X., Xie, Q., Zhu, Y., Yao, G., et al. (2024). An improvement for enrichment and purification of germanium using carbonyl acid extractants. Separation and Purification Technology, 356, 129770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.129770.
  20. Grigorieva, N. A., Kulmuchamedov, G. K., & Fleitlikh, I. Y. (2020). Germanium extraction from sulfuric acid solutions in the presence of thiocyanate ion. Journal of Siberian Federal University. Chemistry, 13(4), 522–531. https://doi.org/10.17516/1998-2836-0204.
  21. Haghighi, H. K., & Irannajad, M. (2022). Roadmap for recycling of germanium from various resources: Reviews on recent developments and feasibility views. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29, 48126–48151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20649-5.
  22. Hartzell, W., Moats, M. Extraction of Critical Electronic Materials from Steelmaking Wastes. Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration 40, 1445–1453 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-023-00819-w.
  23. He, G., Feng, Z., Huang, X. et al. Investigation on the Extraction Process of Zinc and Germanium from Germanium-Rich Zinc Concentrate by Hydrothermal Method. J. Sustain. Metall. (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-026-01435-w.
  24. Helbig, T., Kelly, N., Patil, A.B. (2024). Innovative Solvent Extraction Processes for the Separation of Indium, Germanium, and Gallium from Iron. In: Forsberg, K., et al. Rare Metal Technology 2024. TMS 2024. The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50236-1_24.
  25. Hu, C., Xin, C., Liu, J., Pei, Q., Peng, S., & Xia, H. (2026). Synergistic SO₂/H₂SO₄-driven co-recovery of zinc and germanium from industrial dust: A closed-loop strategy for critical metal recycling. Processes, 14(5), 757. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14050757.
  26. Hu, S., Lu, Z., Li, X. et al. Recovery of germanium from zinc smelting leachates: a review. Environ Chem Lett 23, 1341–1379 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-025-01844-5.
  27. Huang, Y., Wang, M., Liu, B., Su, S., Sun, H., Yang, S., & Han, G. (2024). The extraction and separation of scarce critical metals: A review of gallium, indium and germanium extraction and separation from solid wastes. Separations, 11(4), 91. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations11040091.
  28. Huang, Z., Xu, Z., Guo, X. et al. A Novel Method for Purifying Germanium: Integrating Impurity Alloying with Zone Refining Processes. Metall Mater Trans B 56, 5200–5217 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11663-025-03695-5.
  29. Ingraham, C., Downey, J., Wallace, G. (2026). An Integrated Strategy and Process for Recovery of Germanium from Metallurgical By-Products and Waste Streams. In: Karamalidis, A., et al. Rare Metal Technology 2026. TMS 2026. The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-13776-0_20.
  30. Jiang, T., Wang, P., Zhang, T., Zhu, D., & Liu, Z. (2022). A novel solvent extraction system to recover germanium from H₂SO₄ leaching liquor of secondary zinc oxide: Extraction behavior and mechanism. Journal of Cleaner Production, 383, 135399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135399.
  31. Jiang, T., Zhang, T., & Liu, Z. (2021). Recovery of germanium via H₂SO₄/MnO₂ leaching–NaAc leaching/Na₂CO₃ precipitation–tri(octyl-decyl) amine stepwise solvent extraction. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 9(2), 773–783. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c06526.
  32. Jiang, T., Zhang, T., & Liu, Z. (2020). Pb-based aggregate, Ge-galena coexistence, and Ge-anglesite coprecipitate—Limitations and an improvement of germanium recovery from secondary zinc oxide via H₂SO₄ leaching. Hydrometallurgy, 200, 105543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2020.105543.
  33. Kumar, A., Dhiman, S., Kumar, R., & Gupta, H. (2025). Recovery of germanium from waste optical fibres using phosphonium ionic liquid. Journal of Cleaner Production, 504(1), 145466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2025.145466.
  34. Lan, J., Liang, M., Yang, K., & Zhu, K. (2024). Nitric acid dissolution of germanium overlay in hard zinc slag to enhance germanium leaching and optimization of response surface methodology. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, 28(5), 101925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jscs.2024.101925.
  35. Li, K., Wan, K., Gao, M., & Miao, Z. (2026). Recovery of germanium and valuable by-products from lignite: An integrated soluble conversion and chlorination distillation approach. Separation and Purification Technology, 380, 135281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2025.135281.
  36. Liu, C., Bo, W., Wan, K., & Miao, Z. (2024). Application of supercritical ethanol for enhanced alkaline leaching of Ge in lignite. Energy & Fuels, 39(1), 301-312..
  37. Liu, K., You, Y., et al. (2026). Ultrasound-induced entropy enhancement of tannic acid for selective germanium extraction from complex solutions. Minerals Engineering, 225, 109951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2025.109951.
  38. Liu, X., Zhang, C., Miao, Z., Xu, E., Han, Y., & Ding, L. (2025). Extraction and volatilization mechanism of germanium (Ge) during lignite pyrolysis. Separation and Purification Technology, 354, 128915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.128915 .
  39. Mahandra, H., Hubert, B., & Ghahreman, A. (2021). Recovery of rare earth and some other potential elements from coal fly ash for a sustainable future. In Clean Coal Technologies (pp. 319–345). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68502-7_14
  40. Maubane, P., & Wakalenga, M. K. (2025). Recovery of germanium from copper slag using the silicothermic process. In 24th SGEM International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference 2024 (Vol. 24, Issue 4.2, pp. 141–148). SGEM. https://doi.org/10.5593/sgem2024v/4.2/s17.18.
  41. Meshram, P. & Abhilash. Strategies for Recycling of Primary and Secondary Resources for Germanium Extraction. Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration 39, 689–707 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-022-00549-5.
  42. Nakhaei, F., Locmelis, M., Alagha, L. et al. Characterization and Leaching Feasibility Studies of Copper Flue Dust for the Recovery of Main and Trace Metals. J. Sustain. Metall. 11, 2215–2235 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-025-01158-4.
  43. Nguyen, T. H & Lee, M.-S. (2021). A review of germanium resources and their extraction by the hydrometallurgical method. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 42(6), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/08827508.2020.1756795.
  44. Ondrák Fialová, K., Adámek, K., Štamberg, K. et al. Gallium and germanium static and kinetic sorption and desorption studies on cerium dioxide nanoparticles. SN Appl. Sci. 5, 318 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-023-05561-y.
  45. Page, M. J., Moher, D., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., et al. (2021). PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: Updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews. The BMJ, 372, n160. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n160.
  46. Peng, S., Pei, Q., Lu, Z., Xia, H., et al. (2024). Experiment on selective dynamic extraction of germanium by ultrasonic enhanced N235 extraction resin under complex system. Chemical Engineering and Processing – Process Intensification, 206, 110042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2024.110042
  47. Pereira, A. C. (2026a). Recuperação de gálio a partir de minérios e recursos secundários (2020–2025): Uma revisão crítica da química de processos, desafios de seletividade e prontidão industrial. RECIMA21 – Revista Científica Multidisciplinar, 7(3). https://doi.org/10.47820/recima21.v7i3.7479.
  48. Pereira, A. C. (2026b). Electronic waste and semiconductor-related residues as secondary sources of gallium: Occurrence, processing routes, separation challenges, and circular supply perspectives. https://doi.org/10.66104/c6qq5978
  49. Pereira, A. C. (2026c). Processing of platinum group metals: From primary ores to secondary resources and sustainable recovery strategies. IKR Journal of Engineering and Technology. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19670876
  50. Pereira, A. C. (2026d). Recovery of rare earth elements from hard disk drives: Technologies, challenges, and circular economy perspectives. IKR Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19068704
  51. Rafiee, P., Ghassa, S., Moosakazemi, F., Khosravi, R., et al. (2021). Recovery of a critical metal from electronic wastes: Germanium extraction with organic acid. Journal of Cleaner Production, 315, 128223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128223.
  52. Rao, M., Zhang, Q., Xia, H., Xu, Y., et al. (2025). Recovery of germanium by chlorinated distillation of high content germanium materials enhanced by ultrasonic external field and arsenic removal. Chemical Engineering and Processing – Process Intensification, 217, 110473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2025.110473
  53. Robart, M., Zhang, A., Peek, E. (2025). Gallium Production from Primary and Secondary Sources. In: Metallurgy and Materials Society of CIM (eds) Proceedings of the 63rd Conference of Metallurgists, COM 2024. COM 2024. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-67398-6_225.
  54. Robla, J. I., Alonso, M., & Alguacil, F. J. (2024). Recovery of lesser-known strategic metals: The gallium and germanium cases. Processes, 12(11), 2545. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112545.
  55. Rudnik, E. (2025). Challenges and opportunities in hydrometallurgical recovery of germanium from coal by-products. Molecules, 30(8), 1695. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30081695.
  56. Roy, P. K., Praneeth, S., et al. (2025). Efficient two-step separation of vanadium, scandium, and heavy rare-earth elements from gallium and germanium in high-value fly ash: Coupling solid-phase and solvent extraction. Separation and Purification Technology, 367, 133713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2025.133713.
  57. Serpe, A., Purchase, D., Verbeek, S., et al. (2024). 2002–2022: 20 years of e-waste regulation in the European Union and the worldwide trends in legislation and innovation technologies for a circular economy. RSC Sustainability, 2(11), 3020–3058. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4SU00548A
  58. Sun, Z., Tao, Z., Li, H., Pittman, A. S., Zhou, F., Zhang, G., Wu, J., Cheng, H., Feng, E., Chen, Z., & Cao, Y. (2025). Recovery of rare earth elements, gallium and germanium from fly ash and red mud via ultra-fast flash Joule heating. Chemical Engineering Science. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2025.121879.
  59. Sujiang, Z., Zhou, Y., Deng, W., Zhang, X., & Zhang, Z. (2025). Research progress on resource occurrence and separation extraction of germanium in fly ash. Multipurpose Utilization of Mineral Resources, 46(5), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.12476/kczhly.202312160659.
  60. Sverdrup, H., & Haraldsson, H. V. (2024). Assessing the long-term sustainability of germanium supply and price using the WORLD7 integrated assessment model. Biophysical Economics and Sustainability, 9(4). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41247-024-00121-3.
  61. Tang, H., Fu, Y., Liu, B., Li, L., Zhang, Z., Wang, L., & Jiang, F. (2025). Synergy of catalytic oxidation and nitric acid leaching for efficient extraction of germanium from Ge-rich lignite. Separation and Purification Technology, 365, 132650. https://doi.org/10.1016132650.
  62. Tang, H., Liu, B., Zhang, X., Li, L., Zhang, Z., & Guan, Q. (2025). Extraction of Ge and synchronous activation of humic acid in germanium bearing lignite via oxidation leaching. Fuel Processing Technology, 272(2), 108216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2025.108216.
  63. Tao, J., Tao, Z., & Zhihong, L. (2021). Review on resources and recycling of germanium, with special focus on characteristics, mechanism and challenges of solvent extraction. Journal of Cleaner Production, 294, 126217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126217.
  64. Teng, D., Wu, J., Ma, Q., Wang, W., Zhou, G., Fan, G., Cao, Y., & Li, P. (2025). Advances in the recovery of critical rare dispersed metals (gallium, germanium, indium) from urban mineral resources. ACS Omega, 10(1), 76–92. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.4c08689
  65. Umbach, F. (2024, March 6). Unpopular, but strategically necessary: Why Europe needs domestic resource extraction. Sustainable Supply Chains Blog. https://www.sustainablesupplychains.org/blog/unpopular-but-strategically-necessary-why-europe-needs-domestic-resource-extraction.
  66. Van Hoof, G., Schurmans, M., Robertz, B., Ménard, J.-F., & Dessein, K. (2020). Moving towards sustainable germanium sourcing evaluated by means of life cycle assessment. Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy, 6(2), 333–343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-020-00277-4.
  67. Vereycken, W., De Belder, M., Onghena, B., & Binnemans, K. (2022). Extraction behavior and purification of germanium using an undiluted quaternary ammonium ionic liquid in combination with a complexing agent. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 61(16), 5578–5588. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.1c04940
  68. Vu, H., Frýdl, T., Tomáško, T., et al. (2021). Recent development in metal extraction from coal fly ash. In Clean Coal Technologies (pp. 537–563). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68502-7_23
  69. Wei, X. (2024). Separation behavior of trace impurities during deep purification of zone-fused germanium tailings via vacuum distillation. Vacuum. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vacuum.2024.113983.
  70. Wenlong, J., Bin, Y. (2024). Germanium Metallurgy. In: Kuangdi, X. (eds) The ECPH Encyclopedia of Mining and Metallurgy. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2086-0_755.
  71. Wong, M., Li, J., & Zeng, X. (2025). Uncovering the germanium sustainability up to 2050 in China. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 19(2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-025-1945-3
  72. Wu, Y., Li, M., Luo, X., Wei, C., Deng, Z., Li, X., Peng, X., & Sun, P. (2024). Selective separation of zinc from germanium-bearing iron cake via a roasting–leaching process. Separation and Purification Technology, 337, 126166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2023.126166
  73. Wu, Y., Li, M., Peng, X., Wei, C., Li, X., Deng, Z., Luo, X., Ye, F., Yang, B., & Sun, P. (2025). Selective extraction of germanium from iron-bearing ammonia leaching residue via low-temperature molten NaOH leaching. Separation and Purification Technology, 353(Part C), 128590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.128590.
  74. Xu, Y., Qu, D., Xia, H., Zhang, Q., & Zhang, L. (2023). Migration behavior of germanium and its related elements in zinc hydrometallurgy process. Separation and Purification Technology, 330, 125467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2023.125467.
  75. Xu, Y., Xia, H., Zhang, Q., Cai, W., Jiang, G., & Zhang, L. (2022). Optimization of zinc and germanium recovery process from zinc oxide dust by response surface methodology. ChemistrySelect, 7(44), e202203433. https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.202203433.
  76. Xu, Z., Liu, D., & Tian, Q. (2026). From resources to single-crystal germanium: A review on recovery and purification. Separation and Purification Technology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2026.137655
  77. Yadav, S., Yadav, J., Bruckard, W., Haque, N., & Pramanik, B. K. (2026). Gallium and germanium: Comparing demand and supply with consideration of electronic waste as a secondary source. Separation and Purification Technology, 138270..
  78. Yandem, G., & Jabłońska-Czapla, M. (2024). Review of indium, gallium, and germanium as emerging contaminants: Occurrence, speciation and evaluation of the potential environmental impact. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
  79. You, J., Lu, H., Li, A., Wei, Z., Wang, L., Xing, Y., & Gui, X. (2025). Co-extraction and enrichment of Ge, Sb and As from coal measure germanium-containing dust by reductive volatilization. Separation and Purification Technology, 376, 134156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2025.134156.
  80. You, J., Wei, Z., Xing, Y., & Gui, X. (2025). Thermodynamic analysis and extraction and recovery of germanium from germanium-containing materials: A review. Journal of Environmental Management, 396, 128125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.128125.
  81. Zhang, C., Deng, Z., Lu, Z., Jin, X., Wei, C., Li, X., & Li, M. (2024). A new process of selective separation and extraction of copper and germanium during zinc hydrometallurgy. Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, 63(4), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/00084433.2023.2257572
  82. Zhang, W., Liao, C., Liu, F., Jiang, T., Ma, H., & Sun, Y. (2026). TOC-inhibited synergistic solvent extraction system for high-efficiency germanium recovery from sulfuric acid solutions: Extraction behavior and reaction mechanism. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 14(3), 122181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2026.122181.
  83. Zhang, Z., Xu, Y., Fan, G., Jin, Y., Teng, D., Li, G., Li, P., & Cao, Y. (2025). Leaching behavior of germanium from germanium-rich lignite: A further comprehension of its occurrence state. Fuel Processing Technology, 277, 108298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2025.108298.
  84. Zheng, K., Benedetti, M. F., & van Hullebusch, E. D. (2023). Recovery technologies for indium, gallium, and germanium from end-of-life products (electronic waste)—A review. Journal of Environmental Management, 347, 119043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119043.
  85. Zhong, J., Yang, R., Li, C., Wang, Z., Chen, B., Dai, X., … & Du, J. (2026). Recovery of germanium from high‑chloride germanium-bearing wastewater by ion exchange: A behavior investigation. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 14(3), 122241..
  86. Zhou, D., Rao, S., Li, X., Teng, N., Deng, Z., Cao, H., Wang, D., Ma, Z., & Liu, Z. (2025). Enhanced gallium and germanium recovery from zinc pressure leachate via zinc powder cementation. Hydrometallurgy, 237, 106549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2025.106549.
  87. Zhou, X., Luo, Y., Sun, L., Zheng, J., Ren, Y., Zhai, H., Evgeniia, F., & Ju, S. (2025). Microfluidic chelation of germanium from post-indium extraction waste streams: Coordinative immobilization, process optimization, and environmental risk mitigation. Separation and Purification Technology, 384, 136192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2025.136192.
  88. Zhu, Y., Deng, Z., Wei, C., Yang, Y., Sun, P., Li, X., Li, M., & Fan, G. (2021). Adaptive process for improving leaching efficiency of germanium from secondary zinc oxide. International Journal of Chemical Reactor Engineering, 19(6), 637–646. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijcre-2021-0012.
  89. Zhu, Y., Geng, X., Wen, J., Qu, W., & Wang, L. (2025). Phase evolution and elemental distribution of zinc and germanium during the sulfide roasting, zinc fuming and leaching processes: Benefit of pretreating zinc oxide dust. Hydrometallurgy, 231, 106416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2024.106416.

Author's Affiliation

   Antonio Clareti Pereira
PhD in Chemical Engineering, São Paulo University - USP Belo Horizonte – MG – Brazil, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8115-4279

Copyrights & License

Antonio Clareti Pereira, 2026

This work is licenced under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Article Details

How to Cite :

Germanium Processing from Primary and Secondary Resources: Occurrence, Extraction Technologies, and Circular Economy Perspectives. Antonio Clareti Pereira, 9(5), 2535-2565. Retrieved from https://ijcsrr.org/single-view/?id=26224&pid=26091

Most read articles by the same author(s)

Antonio Clareti Pereira,

View

90

Citation

Downloads

Article Details