The Efforts of Arab and Muslim Scientists in Pharmacy, Practically and Theoretically - Treating Poisons as an Example

: Pharmacy is considered a science and a profession in all human civilizations. Toxic substances are considered health problems that many people face and require prevention and treatment. Arabs and Muslims, in general, have shown interest in pharmacy, and specifically in toxins, both practically and theoretically. This is the focus of this research, which aims to introduce the science of pharmacy, highlight the efforts of Arabs and Muslims in it, especially in combating toxins through prevention, treatment, classification, and definition. The research also aims to introduce some of the works they have written in this field and assess their usefulness, using a descriptive-analytical approach and a historical approach to trace the significant contributions of Arabs and Muslims in pharmacy and toxins over time. The research, with reference to specialized sources in each field, concludes with several key findings, including the significant contribution of Islamic civilization to pharmacy and toxins, benefiting many other nations from these efforts

Islamic Sharia's stance towards it.It then delineates the efforts of Arab and Muslim scholars in one of its domains, specifically the treatment of toxins.The research will present a selection of these efforts chronologically based on the authors' dates of death.The study relies on specialized references in each field, particularly indices of books and sciences, Arabic medical literature, biographical and historical books, with a comprehensive review of relevant sources.

FIRST SECTION: DEFINITION OF PHARMACY, ITS FOUNDATION, AND THE EFFORTS OF ARABS AND MUSLIMS THROUGHOUT HISTORY 2.1. Firstly: Definition of Pharmacy and its Foundations:
The term "sīdālah" (pharmacy) or "sīdānah" refers to medications, as stated in some contemporary Arabic dictionaries.The science of "sīdālah" (pharmacy) explores drugs, their properties, the composition of medicines, and related aspects."As-Sidaly" (a pharmacist), or "As-Sidalany" as singular, is the one who prepares and sells medicines and drugs, its plural is "ṣayadilah."(Omar, 2008, 2/1340,1341, Doozi, 2000, 6/489) And perhaps the first to define the terms of "sīdālah" "pharmacy" or "Sidaly" (a pharmacist) was the Arabic scholar Al-Bairuni (Abu al-Rehan Muhammad ibn Ahmad, died 440 AH), who expressed it as "as-Sīdānah."He authored a well-known book on the subject titled "As-Sīdānah fi At-Tibb" (Pharmacy in Medicine) (Blūṭ, n.d., 4/2534).He mentioned that the Arabic term "As-Saydālah" is an Arabization of the Indian word "jandala."He explained that Arabs were accustomed to transforming the letter "jīm" in foreign languages into "ṣād" in the Arabic language.He defined "As-Sidaly" a pharmacist as "a professional in collecting medicines, preserving them, and testing the best among them in terms of quality" (Ṣawāliḥah, Ansam etc, 2012, p. 47).
During the eighth and ninth centuries of the Hijri calendar, the profession of pharmacists was used to refer to those who sold drinks and drugs.They were known as "Ash-shurābātiyah" and "al-'aṭṭārīn" (Al-Maqdisi, 1996, 2/422).Some contemporary encyclopedias followed this nomenclature, as did Muhammad Fareed Wajdi in his encyclopaedia when he defined pharmacy as the sale of perfumes and medicines, and the pharmacist is the one who sells these items (Wajdi, n.d., 5/594-595).
Pharmacy is both a science and a profession.Many scholars in the past combined authoring in the field, teaching it, and practicing it as a profession.Throughout the history of nations and peoples, most physicians seldom found a doctor without a share of pharmaceutical knowledge, practical engagement, or the composition of books and articles on the subject.Some individuals excelled in pharmacy more than in medicine.
When we look at pharmacy, we find that it relies on the sciences of botany and chemistry because most medicines are either botanical or chemical.This does not mean limiting it to just these, as there are also medicines of animal and mineral origin.However, generally, there is significant interest in the sciences of botany and chemistry among Arab and Muslim scholars.According to Dowaidry (2000), it is notable that they distinguished between the science of botany, which is more theoretical, and the science of pharmacy, which is more practical, even though they share common aspects.
For example, we find As-Sūrī (Rashīd al-Dīn ibn Abī al-Faḍl ibn Ali, died 639 AH), one of the eminent botanists in Islamic civilization.His approach to the study of plants was comparable to contemporary methods.Ibn al-Biṭār (Abdullah ibn Ahmad al-Māliqī, died 646 AH) was one of the most skilled pharmacists in the seventh century of the Hijri calendar, and his book in this field is well-known (Dowaidry, 2000, p. 89).
Muslims became renowned for their expertise in the production of therapeutic drugs, which became sought after by various countries worldwide.The trade of pharmaceuticals exported from the Islamic world flourished, as people witnessed their benefits and effects.Their medications were sent to Europe, Africa, China, and India, with the importation of medicines from Islamic lands being a crucial element in trade between these lands and Italy (Habannakah, 1998, p. 565).
Some researchers have mentioned that Muslims advanced the sciences of botany and discovered medicinal drugs, contributing to the development of medical science and the control of diseases.Some medications still have Arabic names, indicating the influence of this civilization on Western civilization.The excellence of Muslims in the field of pharmaceuticals is attributed to their knowledge of chemistry, a science in which many Muslims excelled.They studied it in the universities of Al-Andalus and some universities in the East (As-Sanidi, 2008, p. 381).

Secondly: Bright images of the efforts of Arabs and Muslims in pharmacy:
Ibn Juljul (Abu Dawood Hasan ibn Sulaiman, died in 377 AH) was one of the renowned physicians during the caliphate of Hisham ibn Al Mo'ayad Billah (died in 403 AH).He possessed extensive experience in pharmacy, interpreting the names of medicines mentioned in the Greek book of Dioscorides.(Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah, n.d, 1250, p. 494).
Dioscorides Pedanius, a famous Greek physician, lived during the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.His notable work had various titles, with the most famous being "De Materia Medica" or "On Medical Material," also known as "Kitab al-Hasha'ish", "The Book of Herbs and Medicines."Or " Dioscorides book of Single Medicines".It was translated into Arabic during the time of Caliph Al-Mutawakkil.
Ibn Zahr Al-Ashbily (Abu Marwan Abdul-Malik ibn Muhammad ibn Marwan, died in 525 AH) was an adept physician in the field of pharmacy.He authored the book "Kitab al-Adwiyah al-Mufradah" (The Book of Single Medicines) and wrote an article responding to Abu Ali ibn Sina in some aspects of his book "Al-Adwiyah al-Mufradah" and a letter on the composition of medicines.(Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah, p. 519).
Al-Kindi (Ya'qub ibn Ishaq ibn al-Sabbah, died around 260 AH) is considered the first to use the distillation and filtration methods in purifying medicines.He was also the first to establish a system for determining drug dosages in treatment, he was interested in specifying their quantities and times of administration.(Ṣawāliḥah, Ansam, etc., 2012, p. 52).
Among the efforts of Imam Ar-Razi (Muhammad ibn Zakariya, died in 313 AH) is his mention in his book "Serr Al-Asrar" of the instruments used in preparing medications.This book was translated and published in 1937, indicating Ar-Razi's contributions to the field of chemistry and its role in pharmacy.( The book "Al qanoon fi At-Tib" by the chief physician Ibn Sina (died in 428 AH) remained the primary reference in the field of medicine in Europe for seven consecutive centuries, from the 10th century to the 17th century AD. (Hajou, Hadiya. 2022."Ibn Sina and His Book 'Al qanoon fi At-Tib ' in Our Heritage Library | Qatar National Library" qnl.qa).Ibn Sina's "Al qanoon fi At-Tib" included methods for preparing around seven hundred and sixty drugs, along with the names of numerous plants and food substances that could be used to treat poisons, snake bites, insect stings, and more.Additionally, it described poisonous plants and methods of prevention.(Durant, 1988, 13/196; Ṣawāliḥah, Ansam, etc, 2012, p. 45).
Al-Bairuni (Abu al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad, died in 440 AH) is considered the first to introduce the term "As-Saydālah" "pharmacy" and express it as " As-Sīdānah "as mentioned earlier.His famous book on this subject is titled "As-Sīdānah fi At-Tibb", which was published with the supervision of Dr. Abbas Zaryab Khu'i in Tehran in 1991.In this book, Al-Bairuni dedicated significant effort to trace and investigate the names and properties of medicines, citing the opinions of preceding physicians.He categorized medications into three types: medicines, foods, and poisons.He mentioned qualities of those skilled in formulating medicinal compounds, emphasizing that they must be proficient physicians in their craft.Additionally, he spoke about the characteristics of a successful pharmacist.His book served as a comprehensive pharmaceutical encyclopedia that benefitted both the East and the West.(Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah, n.d, 1250, p. 459; Ṣawāliḥah, etc., 2012, p. 47).
Ibn Wafid (Abu al-Mutarif Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad, alive in 460 AH) possessed great expertise in the field of pharmacy.He compiled information not matched by anyone in his era and authored an unparalleled book.In it, he gathered content from the works of Dioscorides and Galen (a famous Greek physician who died in 216 CE) on single medicines, arranging them in the best order.Ibn Wafid faced challenges in collecting, organizing, and correcting the names, characteristics, and strengths of medicines, a task that took him around twenty years.(Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah, n.d, 1250, p. 496).
Ibn Ar-Rumiyya al-Ashbili Al-As-Shaab (Abu al-Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Mufarrij, died in 637 AH), was actively involved in pharmacy.He focused on collecting herbs and medicinal plants through his travels and various studies.In Seville, he had a shop where he sold herbs and manufactured medicinal drugs.Imam Shams al-Din Adh-Dhahabi (died in 748 AH) said about him, "He had profound knowledge in plants and herbs, surpassing the people of his time."(Adh-Dhahabi, 2006, 16/315).
Ibn Al-Bitar (died in 646 AH) was considered the "Chief Herbalist" of his time, equivalent to the modern-day position of "President of Pharmacists" in some Arab countries.He authored the book "Al-Jami' fi al-Adwiyah al-Mufradah," which contained over one thousand and four hundred different medicines arranged alphabetically.This comprehensive work demonstrated intelligence, experience, and extensive knowledge in the fields of botany and herbs.His books were used in establishing the first botanical garden and pharmacy in England during the reign of James I (died in 1625).His book "Al-Adwiyah al-Mufradah" is considered a foundational text in the formation of modern pharmacology.(Al-Mawsu'ah Al-Mujazah Fi Al-Tarikh Al-Islami, n.d,1250, 10/970; Ṣawāliḥah, Ansam, etc, 2012, p. 44).
Al-Qalansi al-Samarkandi (Badr al-Din Muhammad ibn Bahrab ibn Muhammad, alive in 620 AH) was skilled in treating diseases.He authored the book "Al-Aqrabadhin" (Compound Medicines), which included forty-nine parts covering a comprehensive range of compound medicines.The book incorporated information from various reliable sources, whether Arabic or Greek.(Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah, n.d, 1250, p. 472).
Ibn al-Jazzar (Ahmad ibn Ibrahim ibn Abi Khalid al-Qairawani, died in 369 AH) was a renowned physician belonging to a medical family, as his father and uncle were also involved in medicine.He had a significant interest in medicines and their compositions.Ibn al-Jazzar was known for his frequent charitable distribution of medicines to the poor and needy.He conducted urine analysis for some patients before prescribing medicines.His medical legacy includes a notable book titled "Fi al-Adwiyah al-Mufradah," also known as the foundational work for the book "Fi al-Adwiyah al-Murakkabah," and a treatise on the substitution of medicines.(Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah, n.d, 1250, p. 482; Mahfouz, Muhammad, 1994, 2/18).Some writers mentioned a group of herbalists and pharmacists in Al-Madinah during the 14th century Hijri, noting their significant role, especially among the elderly, in treating various diseases.People would consult them, present their patients' complaints, and these herbalists would gather herbs, prepare them according to the required form (boiling, grinding, or pounding), and instruct on their use.And the desired outcome was achieved by the grace of the Lord of the creation.Moreover, some of them would volunteer to stay awake at night, without any monetary compensation, in order to serve those in need during the night.This was before the abundance of doctors, hospitals, and pharmacies.The herbalist shops at that time served as pharmacies.(Al-Khayyari, 1992, pp.202, 204).
One of the most famous books on pharmacy in the Arab heritage that must be mentioned here is the massive work authored by the physician Dawud al-Antaki (d.1008 AH) titled "Tadhkirat Uli al-Albab wa al-Jami' li al-Ajab al-Ujab" or famously known as "Tadhkirat Dawud."Dawud was a skilled blind physician who travelled extensively, and his book is considered valuable in the fields of medicine and pharmacy.
The author dedicated a part of his book to the laws of individualization, composition, and his specific practices.In this part, he discussed the conditions of single and compound materials, along with pharmacy laws.This included processes such as grinding substances, frying them, or boiling them in water, among other related matters.
His meticulous efforts in drug manufacturing and preparing medicinal compounds are evident in his consideration of two important elements: the first: the time of collecting herbs and preserving them to prevent corruption, the second: the locations of medicines.
In the third part of his book, Dawud compiled a list of drugs and other items alphabetically, incorporating hundreds of names of plants, animals, and drugs derived from them or from chemical elements or salts.He provided detailed descriptions and discussed their characteristics precisely.Noteworthy is the book's inclusion of names in multiple languages, stating in Arabic, Persian, and Nabatean.(Hafez, Mahmoud. (2006).14/7.) I said: I have read this book multiple times and referred to it in various research studies related to medical issues or the critical edition of certain medical manuscripts.The book has been printed in several early editions, and in its oldest prints, you find an appendix written by one of his students, known as "Zayl At-Tadhkirah."On its margins, there is a treatise on treating diseases titled "Al-Nuzhah al-Mubhijah fi Tashhizh al-Azhan wa Ta'dil al-Amzijah."Many herbalists, those interested in drug composition, and herbal collectors rely on this book.

Thirdly: Oversight of Pharmacists (Monitoring Pharmacists) in Islamic Civilization:
The practice of pharmacy was not left unregulated; rather, it was subject to state control through a system known as "Al-Hisbah."This was considered one of the duties of rulers, governors, and their deputies in various Islamic states throughout different eras.There was a clear focus on monitoring pharmacists, herbalists, and compounders, regardless of the names given to them.Oversight included aspects such as composition, distribution, and other matters, given the direct impact on human health and life.
Scholars of Sharia political in various Islamic states throughout different periods paid attention to professions like pharmacists, herbalists, and compounders (those involved in preparing medicinal drinks).They were monitored and held accountable by Hisbah authorities.Conditions were set for them, and rules and regulations were established for their adherence.This was done due to the critical nature of these professions, given their connection to human health and well-being.
Imam Ash-Shayzari, a scholar from the 6th century Hijri, dedicated a part in one of his books titled "Al-Hisbah a'la As-Sayadilah."In this section, he discussed various forms of deception and fraud in these professions.He outlined what pharmacists should adhere to and the responsibilities of those overseeing them.He said: (Drugs and drinks are of different natures and mixtures, and treatment depends on their mixtures.Some of them are suitable for a disease and mixture, but if something else is added to them, it changes them from their mixture, and they inevitably harm the patient.Pharmacists must watch God Almighty in this and In another part, Al-Hisbah a'la Ash-Sharabiyeen: It was mentioned that compounders should only formulate medicinal drinks or prepare mixtures if their knowledge and expertise are well-known, and their experience and trial in the field are extensive.The oversight authorities stressed that medications should only be formulated using well-known substances and recognized compositions.It was deemed the duty of those overseeing to visit them monthly to ensure the safety, quality, and integrity of their medicinal formulations, checking for any fraud, damage, or corruption...etc.(Al-Shayzari, n.d, p.56-58) In a third part, Al-Hisbah a'la Al-Attareen (Sellers of Fragrances): It was explained that various forms of deception exist in the perfume trade due to the diversity of scents and types of perfumes.The alignment of medicinal compounds and their olfactory similarity were highlighted.It was emphasized that medications are usually purchased individually from perfumers and then combined.The ignorant might buy a compound, thinking it is the desired product, and sell it to another uninformed person who uses it as medicine, unaware of its adverse effects.This poses more harm to people than other deceptive practices since medicinal compounds vary in their nature.(Al-Shayzari, n.d, pp.121-122).

Fourthly: Western Attitude towards Arab and Islamic Efforts in Pharmacy:
Throughout various centuries, the West demonstrated interest in the efforts exerted in pharmacy by Arab and Muslim scholars and benefited practically, theoretically, and academically for many centuries, just as they benefited from the Arabs in medicine, and perhaps more.Many Western scholars praised their Arab and Muslim counterparts for their advancements in medicine and pharmacy.Examples include: The college of Medicine in Salerno, Italy, taught medicine and pharmacy in both Arabic and Latin for about 900 years.In the thirteenth century, Italy saw the emergence of medical schools that integrated the three famous medical traditions: Greek, Arabic, and Jewish.These traditions were absorbed entirely, forming an entirely new medical heritage that became the foundation of modern medicine.During this period, they imported numerous medications from Islamic countries, retaining their Arabic names (Durant, 1988, 17/190).
The Pharmaceutical Society in England recognized two individuals as the greatest contributors to the field of pharmacy: the Greek Galen and the Arab ibn Sina (Dowaidry, 2000, pp.89-90).
German physician and chemist "Otto Fritz Meyerhof" (d.1951) mentioned, "Arab pharmaceutical science persisted in Europe until the mid-nineteenth century.The world's first pharmacy was opened in Italy, and the shift from herbs to powders, tablets, and syrup only occurred after chemistry flourished in the nineteenth century".Durant (1988, 13/187) mentioned that Muslims were almost the pioneers in inventing chemistry as a science.Muslims introduced precise observation, scientific experiments, and meticulous documentation of results in a field that, as far as is known, the Greeks had limited industrial experience and vague assumptions.Muslims performed countless chemical analyses, wrote treatises on stones, distinguished between alkaline and acidic substances, explored inclinations of materials, studied hundreds of medicinal drugs, and formulated hundreds of them.
Durant also noted that surgical medicine was considered one of the weaker branches of Islamic medicine.However, therapeutic medicine and the properties of drugs were stronger among Arabs and Muslims.They added plant materials and other essential substances to the science of compound drugs, introduced new medicinal compounds, established the first drug stores and pharmacies, founded the first pharmacy school, and wrote significant treatises in the field of Aqrbadheen.Importing Arab drugs became one of the most important commercial activities between Italy and the Middle East (Durant, 1988, 13/189).
In the 1960s, specifically in 1964, Europeans and Americans began to reexamine the book "Tadhkirat Dawud al-Antaki (d.1008 AH)" to benefit from its information on plants with medicinal uses (Dowaidry, 2000, p. 90).
The preceding information only scratches the surface of the extensive efforts undertaken by Arabs and Muslims in the field of pharmacy.This overview provides a glimpse into their significant contributions.and the next section will discuss some of their efforts in toxicology, focusing on poison-related contributions.Furthermore, they clarified the medicines used to treat poison and the methods of treatment.This is evident in their medical or general pharmaceutical works, as well as in specific toxicology texts (whether original compositions or translations from other languages).In this section, I will highlight examples of these efforts as follows:
In one of the American medical dictionaries, poison is defined as (Animal, vegetable, or mineral substance which, when applied externally, or taken into the stomach, or circulatory system, operates such a change in the animal economy as to produce disease or death) (J.Thomas.M.D (1865.P:431).

Efforts of Muslims and Arabs in the Study of Poisons:
Given the diverse symptoms, causes, and types of poisons, as well as the various medications available, Arab and Muslim scholars dedicated significant efforts to the study of poisons.They delved into the description, classification, types, symptoms, and effects of poisons, elucidating these details from a theoretical perspective.
They documented this knowledge in their general medical books or specific works and dissertations focused on toxins.Furthermore, they applied these studies practically to extract poisons from the body and discover substances for their treatment.They categorized poisons based on several considerations, including their causes and stages.They also examined the classification of poisons according to their plant, animal, or mineral sources.They studied the conditions of the poisoned individual and the effects or changes occurring in the body based on the type of poison, the person's physical condition, and the most suitable methods for treating the poisoned individual.They provided guidance on actions to be taken after vomiting or purging the poison, especially if the poison was ingested as a drink or food, among other considerations.
Here, I will briefly mention some examples and models of these efforts:

Classification of Poisons:
The physician Ali ibn Sahl ibn Rabban At-Tabari (d.247 AH) mentioned that poisons can be classified into multiple categories based on their nature and source.He categorized them according to their nature, including plant-based poisons, resinous substances, seeds, veins, and substances that flow in the saliva of certain animals like snakes and dogs.Additionally, he included poisons found in the tail of some insects like scorpions and locusts, as well as those present in the proboscis of certain insects like wasps (Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah, n.d., p. 414; Sawalha, 2012, p. 49).
The Andalusian physician Az-Zahrawi (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn Abbas, d. 427 AH) mentioned in his famous book "At-Tasrif li-man 'Ajiza 'an al-Ta'lif" that substances causing poisons can be divided into three categories: mineral, plant-based, and animalbased.He also elaborated on the quantities that can lead to poisoning, aligning with the earlier statement made by the physician Jabir ibn Hayyan, who lived less than two centuries before him (Sawalha, 2012, p. 47, p. 51).
The renowned physician Ibn Sina stated that poisons, in terms of their nature, can be divided into two categories: those acting in a specific manner on the toxic substance itself and those acting in their form and the entirety of their essence.He explained that the first category can result from consuming spoiled food, a substance heating to the body, a narcotic, or a substance blocking respiratory pathways.The latter category includes the names of some lethal poisons, such as the bile of a tiger (Ibn Sina, n.d., 3/282).

Description of the Effects of Poisons on Humans:
Arab physicians documented the effects of poisons on the human body, observing the changes that indicate the presence and type of poison.Ibn Sina, for instance, stated that the occurrence of sensations resembling stinging, cutting, and colic in a person indicates exposure to poisons such as arsenic and mercury, which are toxic metals.In cases where severe inflammation, profuse sweating, redness in the eyes, and thirst occur, it suggests poisoning by a heat-inducing substance like phorbol (characterized as Additionally, symptoms of numbness and coldness in the body signify exposure to narcotics, while weakness, cold sweats, and fainting indicate poisoning by substances antagonistic to the human body's defenses, representing some of the worst types of poisons (Ibn Sina, n.d., 3/282-283).
Physician Abu Al Qassem Az-Zahrawi mentioned some symptoms of poisoning according to the toxic substance ingested, including general symptoms such as lethargy, facial pallor, limb coldness, spasms, and redness of the eyes.These symptoms vary in intensity and weakness depending on the specific poison and the affected individual (Sawalha, 2012, p. 51).
By consulting some contemporary medical dictionaries, it becomes apparent that Western classifications of poisons and their effects align closely with those mentioned by Arab and Muslim scholars.They categorized poisons into four types: A-Irritant poisons, or those which pro-duce irritation, or inflammation, as the mineral acids, oxalic acid, the caustic and Alkalies.

Medicines for Poisons and Their Classifications:
Arab and Muslim physicians were concerned with listing medicines for poisons and their various classifications, as well as their effects in treating poisonings.The medicines they mentioned can be categorized into three main elements: botanical, animalbased, and mineral.While this general classification was mentioned by more than one physician.they also employed other methods of categorization.For instance, the renowned physician Ibn Sina mentioned that medicines taken to counteract poisons could be aimed at breaking down the toxicity of the poison and redirecting its essence, such as in the case of milk.Alternatively, the intention might be to expel the poison's essence, as seen in certain remedies he mentioned.Some medicines aim to confront the poison's characteristics directly, like drinking a solution containing garlic for a scorpion sting.Ibn Sina then highlighted a range of medicines common to both poisons and other ailments, emphasizing that these medicines counteract the poison, preventing it from reaching the heart.Numerous examples were provided (Ibn Sina, n.d., 3/284 and beyond).

Methods of Poison Treatment and Their Gradation:
Many Arab physicians discussed various methods for treating poisonings based on the patient's condition and the type of poison ingested or encountered.For example, the physician Abu al-Qasim Az-Zahrawi mentioned that the general treatment for poisoning involves inducing vomiting and diarrhea.This means administering substances that lead to the patient vomiting or experiencing diarrhea.Additionally, the patient may be given diuretic substances and can be treated with injections or compresses on the abdomen.Feeding the patient with fatty foods is also recommended (Sawalha, 2012, p. 51).

Some moral and sensory indicators of the presence of poison:
Some Arab and Muslim doctors have also emphasized dealing with poisons in terms of prevention and treatment.They mentioned certain signs and characteristics that appear in individuals who offer poisoned food or drink to others, and how to recognize them.Although this is not within the medical specialties, as it relies on matters of suspicion, intuition, and insight, they have paid attention to it, especially in books written for kings, sultans, and the like, or books authored by their personal physicians.
.47191/ijcsrr/V7-i3-22, Impact Factor: 7.943 IJCSRR @ 2024 www.ijcsrr.org1611 * Corresponding Author: Dr. Mohamed Shafei Moftah Bosheya Volume 07 Issue 03 March 2024 Available at: www.ijcsrr.orgPage No. 1606-1618 Abu Abdullah As-Siqilli al-Maziri (4th century Hijri) grew up in Sicily, learned Greek, and lived in Cordoba during the reign of Caliph Abd Ar-Rahman An-Nasir (died in 350 AH).He was a jurist and had a keen interest in both medicine and pharmacy.As-Siqilli was familiar with the names of drugs and medicines, and he collaborated with a group of physicians in Cordoba to research and correct the names of drugs mentioned in Dioscorides' book.(Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah, n.d, 1250, p. 494; Abbas, Ihsan, 1975, p. 122).Imam al-Fasi (Abu Zaid Abd Ar-Rahman ibn Abd al-Qadir, died in 1096 AH) composed a poetic work titled "Al-Aqnoum fi Mabadi' al-Ulum," consisting of seventeen thousand verses.In this work, he covered around three hundred sciences, including aspects related to pharmacy such as the science of formulating drugs, substituting drugs, the powers of drugs, and the science of compound medicines.(Al-Kittani, n.d, 1250, 2/138-139).
oversight were urged to warn, advise, and enforce punishment and penalties.He also highlighted the need for regular audits of their medications every week.(Al-Shayzari, n.d, p. 41 and beyond).
SECOND SECTION: NOTABLE EFFORTS OF ARAB AND MUSLIM SCHOLARS IN STUDYING AND TREATING POISONSArab and Muslim scholars played a significant role in the study of poisons and related aspects, whether in terms of their classifications and the identification of types based on various considerations, or in elucidating their effects on the body.

3 . 2 . 5 .
Some ways to guard against poisons: 1. Ibn Sina mentioned that anyone seeking protection from poisoning should consider the following: A. Avoiding foods with dominant tastes of acidity, saltiness, bitterness, or sweetness, and those with strong odors.The reason is that these foods mask the smell and taste of poisons, making it difficult to detect them.B. Guarding against leaving food or drink containers uncovered or in open spaces, as reptiles or insects may fall into them, leading to food poisoning (Ibn Sina, n.d., 3/281).2. The physician Al-Qusuni, a senior doctor in Sultan Qansuh Al-Ghuri's court, mentioned in his book "Kamalu Al-Farha Fi Daf' As-Sumum Wa Hifdh As-Sihah" in the first chapter ways to prevent the consumption of poisonous foods and what to do in case of poisoning (Al-Qusuni, 2008, p. 156 and beyond).