Outcome-Based Management of Educational Institutions: A Concept Analysis on the Sociological Dimension of Educational Leadership

Aim: The purpose of this concept analysis of outcomes-based management is to bring clarity to the meaning of this term by examining the various ways it is used in education and even in business and other disciplines. Clarifying what is meant by outcome-based management would help those in the academe communicate with each other and with learners about quality educational leadership and management. Clarification of the concept would also help guide management initiatives and development goals related to improving educational quality. This clarification is accomplished after looking in the literature at the many ways that the term has been used. Background: In the field of education, in the new normal era, it is relevant to focus institutional development around established and recognized outcomes that are accepted by all stakeholders. Introduction


RESULTS
This portion of the paper discussed the other concept analysis steps, namely: the determining of the attributes, definitions, cases, antecedents, and consequences.This also involved a literature search and review in relevant academic databases from 1993-2023 using the keywords outcomes-based management, educational leadership and sociology, and outcomes-based education.Lastly, this portion of the concept analysis identified the conceptual context of each definition or discussion of the concept found in the literature.

Literature and Dictionary Definitions of Outcome-based Management
'Outcome-based management' does not appear in dictionaries and literatures as one term.This term is definable as it is in many articles and literatures.However, separating the term into its main chunk words 'outcome-based' and 'management' gives separate definitions.
Breaking down further the 'outcome-based' compound term, an 'outcome' is a culminating demonstration of learning.It is the result of learning which is an observable validation or exhibition of three things: knowledge, competence, and orientation combined altogether (Spady, 1994; The Education University of Hong Kong, 2023, paragraph 5).In connection to the literature definition of what the term 'outcome' is all about, the Cambridge English Dictionary defined outcome as a result or effect of an action, situation, event, etc.Similarly, the Merriam-Webster Dictionary also defined 'outcome' as something that follows as a result or consequence.
Moreover, outcomes are not values, feelings, attitudes, activities, beliefs, assignments, goals, scores, or academic grades.Naturally, these demonstrations or exhibitions mean three things: (1) what the learner knows; (2) what the learner can do with what he or she learned or knew; (3) the learner's confidence and motivation in carrying out the performance.A well-defined outcome will have clearly defined content or concepts.It is being demonstrated through a well-defined process beginning with a directive such as 'to explain', 'organize', or '…be able to produce' (Spady, 1994; The Education University of Hong Kong, 2023, paragraph 7).In other words, outcomes are the achievement or exhibition of learning that happens at the end of a learning experience.
'Outcome-based', literally translated into 'based on the outcome' is acknowledged and defined by experts in the field of education.In the English language structure, the term 'outcome-based' is an adjective that cannot be defined without its described Outcome-based education bases each part of an educational system around 'outcomes'.By the end of the educational experience, every learner should have attained the outcomes intended.There is no specified style of teaching or assessment in OBE.Instead, classes, opportunities, and assessments should all help students achieve the specified outcomes.The teacher's role adapts into an instructor, trainer, facilitator, and mentor based on the outcomes targeted (Spady, 1994;Ederio, et.al., 2021 page 2).Therefore, 'outcome-based' is a descriptor for a phenomenon or event that is accepted as successful if the result is based on the intended or set outcomes.
On the other hand, the term 'management' is very common.'Management' is defined by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary as '(1) the act or art of managing: the conducting or supervising of something (such as a business); (2) judicious use of means to accomplish an end; and (3) the collective body of those who manage or direct an enterprise.The Cambridge English Dictionary also defined 'management' as (1) the control and organization of something, and (2) the group of people responsible for controlling and organizing a company.Thus, 'management' can be defined as handling or directing something with a degree of skill to work upon for a purpose (verb), and a group of people responsible for the supervision and administration of an entity (noun).

Definition of Outcome-based management in the field of Health Science
Rosenberg (2018) in his study on the Outcome-based approach across the medical education continuum explained three situations across the medical education and practice continuum where an outcomes-based approach is applied.He emphasized that by concentrating on outcomes instead of process, a more expectable product of undergraduate medical education will be a medical student capable on day 1 of performing the work required of residency.Evaluating the quality of medical education by the quality of care a medical graduate delivers once they practice will allow a more effective design of medical education to enhance care.A more comprehensive assessment of lifelong physician competence help ensures patients' health and their healthcare experience.Also, the value of care is of the highest possible standard and continually improving.The medical education continuum spans undergraduate medical education (i.e., medical school), graduate medical education (i.e., residency and fellowship), and continuing medical education.Moreover, in healthcare management, Hassett, et.al. (2022) concluded that integrating Patient-Reported Outcomes-based symptom management into the Electronic Health Record could help overcome adoption barriers, consolidate clinical workflows, and promote scalability and sustainability.Wojner (1997) made emphasis that outcomes management in healthcare practice provides a specific scientific framework, enabling the development of best clinical practices, informed consumer decision-making, prediction of resource consumption, identification of consumer expectations, and reduction of financial risk.This came out after the author's realization that healthcare providers and patients are challenged to move the payer-driven healthcare system toward a patient-driven model in the last century before all innovations of the 21 st century.Described as disease management, this outcomes management system would be based on prevention and the natural course of a disease, providing care across the continuum.Thus, establishing the new system will entail the measurement and management of health outcomes to guide practice delivery within a scientific framework.

Definition of Outcome-based management in the field of Business
Forbes (2023) was more concerned with how business entities achieve success whether most of them are process-based or outcome-based in their success achievement approach.While many business enterprises would tend to care most about the outcome, their methods will often tell differently.Direct control, a higher-level task-entailing approach, can be advantageous for ensuring the correct outcomes in certain situations, but this does not mean directly to be outcome-based.Businesses that adopt an outcome-based management method tend to be better at succeeding in their partnerships or outsourcing.With this approach, a business and its supplier or partner should settle on a commonly desired outcome that is amenable and beneficial to both entities and they should also establish agreed-upon parameters.Fundamentally, outcome-based management eliminates micromanaging and instead promotes a more collaborative work environment that prioritizes the end result, hence, the outcome.The same reliable source emphasized that successfully implementing outcome-based management establishes an environment of trust, collaboration, and autonomy.When businesses trust their employees and partners to find the best solutions for reaching the intended outcome, these entities are given the autonomy to fulfill these goals in the manner they find to be most efficient and effective (Forbes, 2023).Jordan (2023) as cited by Forbes (2023) explained that one cannot assume that a 'one size fits all' approach would work every timeeven if the desired outcome is the same.By giving people the resources and autonomy they require, they can provide personalized and efficient results to deal with any situation or setting.Outcome-based management applies the knowledge and experience of workers and outsourced partners to find the right solution for the problems and opportunities they experience within their scope of responsibility.This setting ultimately promotes innovation and engagement and then incentivizes performance and accountability.Everyone involved must take personal responsibility for being accountable to make sure that the desired outcome is attained.Bard, et.al. (1994) introduced a conceptual framework for the implementation of outcomes-driven management.The concept of value for investment is explored and definitions are presented.Background information provides an overview of the literature with an emphasis on management challenges and quality management.The methodology is described including implementation and evaluation.Experiential examples of implementation techniques and global outcomes in the three domains of service, service provider, and service manager are presented.The article is concluded with advantages, disadvantages, and summative remarks.
Lastly, outcome-based management experts in the field of business stressed that focusing on outcomes lets businesses and leaders get the results they desire.In the end, the outcomes a business achieves from its partners and workers are what affects the bottom line.By concentrating on the desired outcome and then giving others the independence to reach it in the way they find best and most appropriate, you can provide the autonomy and flexibility required to increase intrinsic enthusiasm and inventiveness.By maintaining a clear focus on the outcome, businesses can ensure that accountability does not fade.Business leaders can strengthen accountability processes by highlighting the results (Vitasek as cited by Forbes, 2023).

Definition of Outcome-based management in the field of Public Administration and Governance
Jenkins (2020) emphasized that sustainable development requires a proactive role by the government for goals and projects to achieve desired goals and outcomes.Outcome-based management is needed instead of relying on proponent-led projects and compliance with conditions.This kind of management involves approaches to sustainability in order to meet multiple community outcomes, for programs and projects to be aligned with those strategies, and, for auditing of implementation against the achievement of outcomes.
Like that in the field of business and enterprise, Robinson as cited by Forbes (2023) explained that in outcomes-based management, time and talent are exquisite resources even in governance and administration.Leaders who employ an outcome-based approach in leadership and management ensure that neither of these is wasted.This approach concentrates the workforce and teams more on a concrete result and less on the process required to achieve it.
The Asian Development Bank or ADB (2012) produced and published their Results-based Public Sector Management in the year 2012.In this guide, ADB focuses efforts to promote managing for development results (MfDR) in three key results areas: (i) improved support for MfDR capacity building in developing member countries (DMCs), (ii) increased results orientation in managing ADB's operations, and (iii) sustained collaboration with development partners to share MfDR knowledge.These development results drive ADB to strengthen and achieve a holistically sustainable public sector.This guide also illustrates how the results features of the ADB framework can be integrated into ADB's processes-in particular the country-level sector assessments.This rapid assessment guide complements the existing guidelines for Implementing ADB's Second Governance and Anticorruption Action Plan (GACAP II).The guide draws on the framework to incorporate principle-based questions to determine the results orientation of PSM at the country, sector, and institutional levels.The findings of the assessment inform the various diagnostics associated with the formulation of country partnership strategies (CPS).
Results-based Public Sector Management recognizes that in order to achieve optimal development results, the planning, budgeting, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation must exhibit results features and be coordinated for maximum efficiency and effectiveness.Development results must be planned for, resources must be allocated, and intended activities must be  Heinrich (2002) in his article on outcomes-based performance management in the public sector yielding implications for government accountability and effectiveness stressed that requirements for outcomes-based performance management increase performance-evaluation activities at all government levels.This kind of research however points to problems in the design and management of these systems and questions their effectiveness as policy tools for increasing governmental responsibility.Heinrich (2002) further analyzed experimental data and the performance-management experiences of job-training programs to project the influence of public management and system-design factors on program outcomes and impacts.He further assessed whether trusting on administrative data to measure program outcomes, rather than impacts, yields information that might mislead program managers in their performance-management activities.While the results of empirical analyses confirm that the utilization of administrative data in performance management is unlikely to produce accurate projections of true program impacts, they also suggest that these data can still generate useful information for public managers about policy levels that can be directed to enhance organizational performance.

Definition of Outcome-based management in the field of Education
Lee & Lee (2014) explained in their study on reconstructing education and 'knowledge' in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries with scientific management, educational efficiency, outcomes-based education, and the culture of performativity, that scientific management and social efficiency theories with the Outcomes-based Education provided a convenient, hegemonic, and technicist foundation for implementing wide-ranging educational reforms designed apparently to enhance not only educational achievement but also "economic efficiency, productivity, and prosperity".These resulted in a great reconfiguration of what counts as 'worthwhile knowledge' in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.
In the context of school management, for example, educational leaders define the institutional outcomes and, along with administrators, set parameters and guidelines.The role of employees then entails a high level of autonomy where they can use their own unique talents to reach goals their own wayand this is an example of manpower empowerment (Robinson as cited by Forbes, 2023).Focusing further on the field of education, educational leaders strongly consider the holistic aspect of an institution in planning and development.Although this kind of direction is regularly too exhaustive, educational leaders tend to look henceforth to the sociological dimension of educational leadership and management in order to still achieve the holistic development of the school institution.This approach is where the school is thereby directed to focus on the communal development of both internal and external stakeholders of the school to achieve greater heights and make a marked differenceand this is where the outcomes-based management and development of Educational Institutions come in.Spady (1991) claimed that Outcome-based education or OBE is a standard of education that objects to the traditional focus on what the school provides to students to favor students demonstrating what they "know and are able to do" whatever the required outcomes are.OBE reforms highlight setting clear standards for observable and measurable outcomes.OBE entirely demands the adoption of any specific outcome.Many countries establish their OBE standards so that they focus strictly on mathematics, language, science, and history, without ever referring to attitudes, social skills, or moral values (Spady, 1991;Spady, 1994 2021) also emphasized that the key features which may be used to judge if a system has implemented an outcomes-based education system include: (1) Creation of a curriculum framework that outlines specific and measurable outcomes.The standards included in the frameworks are usually chosen through the area's normal political process; (2) A commitment not only to provide an opportunity for learning but to necessitate learning outcomes for advancement.Promotion to the next grade, a diploma, or other reward is granted upon achievement of the standards, while extra classes, repeating the year, or other consequences entail upon those who do not meet the standardsthrough the commonly known as expanded opportunities; (3) Standards-based assessments that determine whether students have achieved the intended standard.Assessments may take any form, so long as the assessments truly measure whether the student knows about the required information or can perform the required task; and (4) A commitment that all students of all groups will ultimately achieve and demonstrate the same minimum standards.Schools may not "give up" on unsuccessful students but rather provide them with more expanded opportunities to succeed ( The emphasis in an OBE education system furthermore is on measured outcomes rather than "inputs," such as how many hours students spend in class or what textbooks are provided.Outcomes may include a range of skills and knowledge.Generally, outcomes are expected to be concretely measurable.A complete system of outcomes for a subject area normally includes everything from a mere recitation of fact to complex analysis and interpretation.Writing appropriate and measurable outcomes can be very difficult, and the choice of specific outcomes is often a source of local issues.Each educational institution is responsible for establishing its own outcomes.Under the OBE model, education agencies may specify any outcome (skills and knowledge), but not inputs (field trips, arrangement of the school day, teaching styles).Some popular models of outcomes include the National Science Education Standards and the NCTM's Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (retrieved from: https://www.k12academics.com/education-reform/outcome-based-education/what-obe).

Determine the defining attributes of outcome-based management
Walker and Avant (2011) defined attributes as characteristics that emerge in a concept repeatedly and so help researchers distinguish the occurrence of a specific phenomenon from a similar one.Results from the 20 relevant resources helped to identify two attributes associated with outcome-based management as shown in Table 2.In the table, 'An approach in management focusing on outcomes or end results instead of process' receives the most literature support followed by 'A management style that discourages micromanaging and instead fosters a more collaborative work environment, accountability, autonomy, flexibility, and creativity that prioritizes the end result' and 'An approach to achieve holistic and sustainable development of community/businesses'.
In conclusion, the conceptualized definition of outcome-based management is the approach in management focusing on outcomes or end results instead of process discouraging micromanagement and instead fostering a more collaborative work environment, accountability, autonomy, flexibility, and creativity that prioritizes the end result towards a holistic and sustainable development of a business environment or community.

Construct a model case and analysis of outcome-based management
In this concept analysis, a model case is illustrated to demonstrate all defining attributes of the concept (Walker & Avant 2011).The model case based on the researcher's experience in the school as a member of the top management is presented as follows.

Table 2. Literature supports the attributes of outcome-based management
Attributes Sources 1.An approach in management focusing on outcomes or end results instead of process (Asian Development Bank, 2012); (Bard, et. al., 1994)

Model case
The top management of a private University is set to conduct strategic planning for the next three yearsa new long-term strategic year cycle.In this school, the planning and institutional development is led by the University Research and Institutional Development Office.The principle & approach in the strategic planning employed by the school management is that of outcomebased management.The planning activity started with analyzing first the Institutional Philosophy of the University which is comprised of the Vision, Mission, and Core Value statements.Also, the management projected what would they desire to achieve at the end of three years covering all aspects of the school including the welfare and outcomes relevant to the customers (learners).During the planning activity, the URID Director emphasized the individual role and contribution of every department, unit, and employee to the fulfillment of the strategic plan and to the achievement of the intended outcomes.Because of this, the top management finds it easy to fulfill all indicated targets, goals, and activities that would lead to the achievement of the set outcomes while entrusting and empowering every department and employee to work on their deliverables with collaboration, creativity, autonomy, and innovationa result of task delegation.The URID director further emphasized that all units and departments will be monitored in terms of their progresses in correspondence to the set outcomes quarterly, semestrally, and annually encouraging them further to have a sense of accountability and independence in their tasks.As all employees understood the entire essence and direction of the planning activity for institutional management and development, they felt a sense of achievement every time they worked on their respective tasks and fulfill activities that led to the achievement of results or outcomes.Moreover, since the employees and management find the approach to be effective and much more meaningful, a healthier working environment is fostered while sustaining the workforce and their passion for work allowing for continuous quality improvement holistically while maintaining the blood flow of the institution.
In this case, the school administration desired to achieve outcomes through efficient institutional development and planning.The management and especially the employees felt happy when they are trusted, empowered, given a sense of accountability and responsibility, acknowledged, and collaboratively working with innovativeness while letting them see their progress that they knew to be contributory to the achievement of the outcomes.Therefore, all the attributes of outcome-based management were met in this case.

Construct an additional case and analysis of outcome-based management
As researchers defined attributes of related concepts overlap with the analyzed concepts, it was hard to identify the most representative defining attributes.Therefore, identifying a case that is contrary to a model case can help researchers explain the most representative attributes of studying a concept.According to Walker & Avant (2011), the contrary case demonstrated a 'clear example of not the concept'.An example based on the researcher's working experience is provided below.

Contrary Case
University A conducted institutional planning during the summertime a month before the beginning of the school year.The University administrators are much more focused on how the processes, especially on School and Customer services, be continuously implemented and sustained that satisfy the customers.Regardless of results and outcomes, the said University sustained this 'routinary' planning scheme with the belief that ensuring that institutional processes alone would lead to the best results and outcomes even if not pre-identified or set at the beginning.Because of this, all employees were merely focused on implementing the structured processes restricting them from having a sense of flexibility, initiative, and creativity without a clear targeted goal or result to achieve o attain.This led to a more exhaustive work environment that did not promote sustainable management and development eventually leading to the resignation of some employees and unclear institutional targets achievement at the end of the strategic year cycle.
In this case, outcome-based management was not employed in University A. The management and especially the employees did not feel happy, trusted, empowered, given a sense of accountability and responsibility, and acknowledged.Also, collaboration and creativity were restricted because of the school's being too much and focused on process-based approaches not letting the management and employees see the progress that they supposed to contribute to the achievement of the outcomes which in this case is also not set.Therefore, all the attributes of outcome-based management were absent on the contrary case.The consequences of outcome-based management include the situations when educational managers or administrators dwell on outcomes when planning for institutional development, the institutional performance, quality of educational services, and employee & stakeholder performance are increased.Moreover, when educational institutions are focused on outcome-based management, employee turnover, burnout, resource waste, and unclear targets are often reduced.

Define empirical referents of outcome-based management
Defining empirical referents is the last step of concept analysis.Walker and Avant (2011) stressed that 'empirical referents are classes or categories of actual phenomena that by their existence or presence demonstrate the occurrence of the concept itself'.The defining attributes of the outcome-based management concept are abstract, so empirical referents are needed to make the concept measurable and much more describable.Empirical referents for outcome-based management are described according to the following attributes:

An approach in management focusing on outcomes or end results instead of process
This attribute can be measured by statements such as, 'When planning for institutional development, I contribute to the creation of a framework that outlines specific and measurable outcomes' (Spady, 1991;Ederio, et.al., 2022) or 'The top management determines and establishes intended outcomes to be achieved at the end of the set duration' (Spady, 1991;Ederio, et.al., 2022;ADB, 2012).

A management style that discourages micromanaging and instead fosters a more collaborative work environment, accountability, autonomy, flexibility, and creativity that prioritizes the end result
This attribute can be measured by statements such as, 'When planning for institutional development, basic level employees are entrusted and empowered to work on specific tasks and deliverables' (Rosenberg, 2018;Heinrich, 2022;Vitasek, 2023) or 'I allow the employees to be creative in achieving the intended outcomes set by the top management' or 'I am given the autonomy to do my own work and fulfill my tasks as long as I achieve the intended outcomes posed by the top management'.

An approach to achieve holistic and sustainable development of community/business
This attribute can be measured by statements such as, 'Outcome-based planning allows our institution to achieve holistic and sustainable development' or 'Our institutional planning encompasses all aspects of our University promoting beneficial outcomes for all'.

Discussion
This concept analysis provides a deeper understanding of the meaning about outcome-based management.Although the term outcome-based management does not appear as a dictionary definition, the comprehensive analysis results reveal more clarity in the meaning of outcome-based management.It was literally translated as 'based on the outcome' which is defined as concentrating and establishing the entire institutional and academic programs and efforts around the clearly defined outcomes the schools want the learners to demonstrate and stakeholders to experience.It is a transformational means of doing business in education.Based on the business process and public governance fields, Outcome-based management utilizes the knowledge and experience of internal and external stakeholders or interested parties to determine the right solution for the challenges and opportunities they encounter within their scope of responsibility and that this kind of working environment hence ultimately promotes innovation, novelty, and active engagement.In fact, institutions that adopt an outcome-based management method tend to become better resilient and succeed.
In addition, the result of identified attributes can be used to develop the outcome-based management instrument according to the field of education and educational institution.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION Conclusion and implication for Education and Educational Management
Based on Walker and Avant's (2011) eight-step process of concept analysis, this concept analysis study clearly identified the attributes, model case, additional case, antecedents, consequences, and empirical referents of outcome-based management through comprehensive reviewing literature.The findings of this study can promote the development of institutions considering established outcomes or desired end results.
Moreover, the antecedents of outcome-based management, which provided overall evidence of the categories or variables namely the (1) specific and measurable outcomes, (2) the commitment of the management or administration towards achieving the set outcomes, (3) standardizing evaluation and assessment that determine whether outcomes are achieved or not, and (4) commitment of the employees and other internal stakeholders to fulfill activities that help achieve the outcomesall that significantly comprise outcome-based management as showed in Fig. 1.
Regarding the consequences of outcome-based management, this analysis confirms that when educational managers or administrators dwell on outcomes when planning for institutional development, the institutional performance, quality of educational services, and employee & stakeholder performance are more likely.Also, when educational institutions are focused on outcomebased management, employee turnover, burnouts, resource waste, and unclear targets are often less likely.

Limitation
In this study, the researcher analyzed the documents published in English language after 1991.Not included in this analysis are the documents written in other languages and written before 1991.

Introduction 2 .
Determine the purpose of the analysis Introduction 3. Identify all uses of the concept Introduction and Results 4. Determine the defining attributes Results 5. Construct a model case Results 6. Construct an additional case Results 7. Identify antecedents and consequences Results 8. Define empirical referents Results outcome-based is commonly known in the educational arena, the term is normally associated with 'education', hence, outcome-based education or ObE.WilliamSpady (1993), the known Father of Outcome-based Education, simply defined the term as "focusing and organizing the entire programs and instructional efforts of an educational institution around the clearly defined outcomes the schools want all learners to demonstrate when they leave school."ObE is not a program nor technique or event.It is a transformational means of doing business in education.
consequences of outcome-based management Based on Walker and Avant's description, 'antecedents are those events or incidents that must occur prior to the occurrence of the concept' (Walker & Avant 2011).Articles that somewhat talked about the predictors of outcome-based management were reviewed.These predictors were considered as the antecedents of outcome-based management and grouped into four characteristics or variables by the author, including the establishment of specific and measurable outcomes (Spady, 1991; Spady & Marshall, 1994; Ederio, et.al., 2021), the commitment of the management or administration towards achieving the set outcomes (Spady, 1991; Spady & Marshall, 1994; Spady & Uy, 2014; ADB, 2012; Heinrich, 2022), standardizing evaluation and assessment that determine whether outcomes are achieved or not (Spady, 1991; Spady & Marshall, 1994; Spady & Uy, 2014; ADB, 2012; Heinrich, 2022; Jenkins, 2020; Vitasek, 2023), and commitment of the employees and other internal stakeholders to fulfill activities that help achieve the outcomes (Ederio, et.al., 2021; ADB, 2012; Heinrich, 2022; Jenkins, 2020; Vitasek, 2023).