The Status of Banana Production in Tanzania; a Review of Threats and Opportunities

The word “banana” refers to a crop that cuddles a number of species commonly known as Musa spp. In Tanzania, the crop is the fourth most important crop for food and income generation for more than 30 percent of the total population. In East Africa, Tanzania is the second banana producer after Uganda. The country has the highest world’s consumption rate between 280500 kg per person. Despite the crop’s importance its production has declined from 18 t/ha in the 1960s to 5-7 t/ha/year in 2016. This review examined the status of banana production by identifying threats and opportunities with the aim of providing readily available resource for Researchers and Agriculture Extension Officers for better banana production. Through online resources, the review identified the challenges impeding banana production and ascertaining prevailing opportunities. Banana production in Tanzania is faced with many challenges including major pests (weevil and nematode) and diseases (fusarium wilt disease, black sigatoka, and banana xanthomonas wilt disease), poor soil fertility, moisture stress, poor management practices, lack of improved banana varieties and many social economic factors. The review identified that, since 1990s there are few introduced improved banana varieties and that most of these varieties are faced with low consumer’s acceptability. Again the country is faced with shortage of banana breeding centers that could produce desirable banana hybrid cultivars. This review also identified the lack of banana information resources and research platforms that involves all banana stakeholders, making targeting of varietal attributes to consumer preferences very difficult. Therefore, in order to improve production there must be an inter-link among different research disciplines, involving governmental and non-governmental organizations, coming together and seek solutions to current and future problems for sustainable production of banana.


INTRODUCTION 1.1 General Background
The word "banana" refers to a crop that cuddles a number of species commonly known as Musa spp. of the Musaceae family (Umuhoza, 2014). The crop is the fourth most important cultivated monocot herbs that embrace the diploid, triploid and some tetraploid cultivars (Nelson et al., 2006;Perrier et al., 2011;Pillay, 2012). The origin of cultivated banana is South eastern Asia and Pacific regions (Masanza, 2003 Diploid AA includes the Acuminata, whereas diploid BB includes the Balbisiana (Nelson et al., 2006). Triploids AAA comprise (Gros michel and all EAHB, cooking banana, beer banana, Cavendish and Red banana whereas Triploids ABB (Kayinja), AAB comprises (Kamaramasenge) and Plantains (Mizuzu), the Tetraploids AAAA which contain all FHIA (Karemera, 2014). The crop is reflected as poor man's apple and it is the inexpensive among all other fruits in many SSA countries including Tanzania (Heslop-Harrison and Schwarzacher, 2007). Moreover, bananas' ability to produce fruits throughout the year ranks them above other staple food crops (Nayar, 2010). It is also reported that banana improvement investment holds great potential for improving food security as these crops feed more people per unit area of production than other staple crops (West et al. 2014). It is believed that in Africa banana cultivation began around three thousand years ago (De-Langhe, 1995). Their introduction in sub-Saharan Africa was initiated by Arab traders after the birth of Jesus Christ (Price, 1995). However, after their introduction they plant nutrients in soils has adverse consequences for crop production and soil fertility maintenance Baanante, 1999, 2006;Pilbeam and Morley, 2007;Nyombi 2014;Majumdar et al. 2016). Nkuba and Mgenzi, (2002), reported that, the expansion in cultivated land and intensification of banana productivity are limited by declining soil fertility. Deficiencies of potassium (K) and nitrogen (N), can cause between 20 and 68% yield loss in banana crop (Nyombi et al., 2010). Thus applications of nutrients are important for growth and development of plants as well as to beneficial microorganisms (Agrios, 2005). Since, Africa's consumption of modern inputs, particularly fertilizers, is comparatively reported to be very low (Boniphace et al., 2015). It is reported that, the average application rates of fertilizer for arable crops in East African countries are estimated to be below 30 kg/ha/year which is far less than the world average of 100kg/ha/year (Wiggins and Jonathan, 2010). Suhasini et al., (2018) reported that, application of inorganic fertilizers in banana crop increased yield substantially, but could not sustain the fertility status of the soil. Inorganic fertilizers caused several undesirable consequences in the fragile soil eco-system leading to gradual decline in productivity (Suhasini et al., 2018). This calls for research that will lead to specific fertilizer recommendations based on soil eco-systems for better performance of banana crop. For better banana yields, regular checking of soil nutrient status is suggested in order to ensure that macro and micro nutrients exist in a balanced ratio (Van Asten et al. 2004; Baijukya et al. 2005;Yamaguchi, 2004). There is little information regarding relationship between soil nutrient, climate and banana crop performance. More researches are needed on nutrient modelling to curb the challenge related to banana plant nutrient.

Moisture stress
Banana production system in Tanzania is mostly rain fed (Nkuba and Mgenzi, 2002). Water is reported to be the most limiting nonbiological factor affecting banana production (Turner, 1995). As a rule of thumb, bananas require 25 mm of rainfall per week for satisfactory growth (Nyombi, 2013). Climate change has caused unpredictable or irregular rainfall patterns (below, average or high) compared to the required amount of 1300 mm of rainfall per year (Nyombi, 2013;Ndamani and Watanabe, 2013). Due to low or excess moisture in the soil, there is accelerated poor performance of banana in many areas (Bosch et al., 1996;Baijukya et al., 2005;Nyombi et al., 2010;Van Asten et al., 2011). The apparent changes in rainfall patterns are reported to be due to anthropogenic activities and natural processes (Udayashankara et al., 2016). The climate can shift because of natural changes either within the climate system or outside of it such as in the amount of solar energy reaching the Earth (Trenberth et al., 2000). Additionally, changes in land use through activities such as deforestation, agriculture expansion, burning, the building of cities, industrialization, storage and use of water, and the use of energy are all important anthropogenic local factors contributing to climate change (Trenberth et al., 2000). Banana plants require regular watering, from rainfall or irrigation, all year round (Diczbalis, 1993). The crop performs best in well drained soils which are maintained at or near field capacity (Diczbalis, 1993). Therefore, more researches are needed on breeding moisture tolerant banana which can tolerate moisture stress. The researches can also focus on nutrients that enhance tolerance to moisture stress like silicon by identifying genes responsible for.

Poor management practices
In Tanzania, smallholder farmers are resource deprived who basically miss the mark of banana agronomic practices that could enhance yields (Lokina et al., 2011;FAO, 2015;Siedek, 2016). Low productivity has been linked to a combination of several factors, including over-reliance on rainfall, utilization of rudimentary and unsustainable production methods, poor access to inputs and low extension service capacity (FAO, 2013; URT, 2016). Even though a number of banana farm management procedures have been developed and recommended to farmers, they are practiced irregularly and sometimes not at all (NARO, 2001). The use of poor agronomic practices has been reported to encourage infestation of pests and diseases, and soil nutrient depletion (Bakry et al., 2009). There is failure in almost every stage of production starting from selection of suitable varieties of banana seeds to management practices like de-trashing, de-suckering, weeding, mulching, fertilizer application, intercropping Integrated pest managements (IPM) have been proved to improve yield through minimized effects resulted from pest damage and disease pressure. This call for banana production stakeholders; the government, agricultural extension workers and banana producers to come together, discuss and identify best IPM for banana production. Additionally, the government can fund researches on banana IPM so as to come up with best IPM strategies for implementation. Breeding and development of new banana varieties, should focus on targeting end-users, this will help identify consumer characteristics that will guide breeding strategies. We therefore suggest that, the ongoing breeding program researches should focus on client driven because banana markets are based on consumer's preference.

Lack of finance
Tanzania has 94.5 million hectares of land of which 44 million hectares are classified as arable, but only 24% of the arable land is under cultivation (Agricultural development strategy II, 201/16-2024/25). Among the major constraints that held back the agriculture sector in Tanzania from performing at its utmost is, poor access to finance by smallholder farmers (Molela, 2017). Resource is a key factor to purchase inputs and invest in farm improvements in the farm (Molela, 2017). Similarly Mbuga, (2019) reported that insufficient credit and equity have negatively affected technology innovations, crop production, and socio-economic development of the farm entrepreneurs. Miller et al. (2013) reported that many money lending institutions refrained from investing in smallholder famers because of the delinquency risk associated with the agriculture sector. Molela, (2017) and Mbuga, (2019), identified the factors that hamper farmers from securing external finance including lack of enough capital, poor collateral management, use of traditional method of cultivations, low business capacity, poor character and failure to meet the credit terms and conditions set by lenders. Therefore there is a need for government to put in purposive efforts to support the Tanzania Invest Bank and create favorable environment for smallholder farmers to be able to secure capital to invest in banana and other fruit crops production and marketing.

Poor market of agricultural produce
Farmers are both producers and consumers, sell processed or fresh bananas, processed products can either be for home consumption or marketing, and for the latter, traders, retailers, and urban consumers are also actors (Marimo et al., 2019). Lyatuu et al., (2015), reported that proper functional markets in Tanzania is a major problem, due to the fact that, present markets are incomplete as result of insufficient access to market information, low access to finance and insurance market, poor linkage of small producers to the established market, unnecessary restrictions and controls on the sale and purchase of agricultural products and lack of proper standards for quantifying and grading products. Other are insufficient borrower information, cumbersome legal procedures and high transaction costs, that many financial service providers are reluctant to serve smallholder farmers (Lyatuu et al., 2015). The Tanzania government in 2001 adopted Agricultural Sector Development Strategy (ASDS) for the purpose of improving agriculture in the country (Leyaro and Morrissey, 2013). The ASDS emphasized the need to improve the efficiency of input markets and product marketing, increase access to credit, enhance the provision of extension services and increase investment in rural areas (especially for irrigation and transport (Leyaro and Morrissey, 2013). With all this endeavors strategized by the government still market is a challenge for agricultural products including banana. Farmers are mostly albeit indirectly affected not only by the prices of their own outputs, but also by the incentives non-agricultural producers face, that is both absolute but relative prices and relative rates of government assistance affect producer incentives (Anderson and Masters, 2009). There are need to involve multilateral cooperation within the country and without for the purpose of availing new markets and platform for banana and plantain market.

Poor infrastructures
Infrastructure is a very important stimulant of agricultural trade and lack of it lead to high transaction costs in the developing world . A common dispute in favor of infrastructure development is that, economic liberalization policies would yield greater comebacks if combined by investments in infrastructures .

Taboos and traditions
Farmers and their families are part of the society in which their attitudes and desires are highly influenced strong by members of society (Pikalov, 2014). There are several taboos, habits, customs and norms set in many societies to ensure smooth running of the society which has economic and social impact (Stifel et al., 2011). Importantly; taboos are as proscriptions that one is not allowed to do, object one must not come into contact, words which must not be uttered and places which must be avoided, they are generally omnipresent in societies (Stifel et

Perishability nature of agricultural produce
Perishability is one of the major constraints in banana production and marketing, and is more serious in developing countries like Tanzania  We therefore conclude here that examining the various concepts of banana postharvest losses, considering the importance banana in food security, assessing the causes of yield losses, environmental consideration and its influence on losses is a priority for better banana production. So designing of research projects is recommended on production and post-harvest handling of banana fruits.

11 Poor production base
In Tanzania HODECT, (2010) reported the consequence due to smallholder famers owning small farm size of 0.1 to 2.0 acres of horticultural crops, being inability to supply large quantity or sufficient for buyers, to make them eye-catching suppliers and maintain the market. Unsatisfactory economies-of-scale and insufficient synchronization amongst smallholders makes it difficult to achieve the quantity of supply necessary to gain access to global markets. Smallholder farmers in Tanzania do diversify crops as a risk management stratagem to stabilize their income by growing many crops, this is to minimize their exposure to risk, such as price shocks (FAO, 2015). The size of landholdings and the type of tenure system often discourage investments in banana production, Therefore there are need for formation of associations for producers and establishment of production contractual agreements between farmers and buyers, this is of use as entry point to link farmers with buyers ultimately will enhance production and assured market.

Lack of banana product diversification
In East Africa including Tanzania banana are mainly used as food (cooked, roasted and chips/crips) and for brews (Karemera, 2014). All these products are less prepared in the country by small holder farmers so the need for extensive studies on the banana product diversification is important area for the country to realize increased banana production.

Climate change
Assessing the impacts of climate change in relation to banana crop productivity and food security has been poorly studied in Tanzania (Lucas and Jomanga, 2021). A report by Rosenzweig et al., (2014) showed that most of the studies showing the impacts of climate change on food security mainly focused on major food grains. Very limited studies on the effects of climate change have been done in the country (Lucas and Jomanga, 2021). However, Wairegi et al., (2010) in Uganda showed that, the future state of climate change variations will affect banana productivity. This review therefore calls for more researches that will show how climatic factors affects banana crop in relation to plants growth cycle in Tanzania. This is because clear information in banana cropping and climate factors has the potential to promote high banana productivity.

Social protection and support policies to smallholder farmers
Practically, social protection and agriculture have a two way relationship, firstly, poor rural households mostly relying on agriculture for their livelihoods are often affected by limited access to resources secondly, idiosyncratic risks (FAO, 2013). Social protection helps to improve credit, savings and liquidity constraints by providing cash and in-kind support and assist households to better manage risks and to engage in more cost-effective livelihood and farming activities (FAO, 2013). Characteristically majority of smallholder farmers in Tanzania have a relatively low socio-economic status, this is due to the fact that household income is mainly obtained from low on-farm sources involving crop and livestock (Anderson et al., 2016;Morisset, 2013b). The country has no social security arrangements for people who work in the informal, agricultural and extractive sectors, and the majority of unemployed individuals are not covered by any form of protection (Ulriksen, 2016). Therefore, the improvement and or establishment of social protection policies in agriculture is identified as a very important aspect will improve crop production. Social protection policies intend to decrease socio-economic risks, vulnerability, extreme poverty and deprivation, while smallholder agricultural policies focus on improving production in crops, fisheries, forestry and livestock and improving access to markets (FAO, 2013). This calls for government and other agriculture policy stakeholder come together and establish agricultural policies that will help improving banana crop production chain in the country. With these progress above issue of incorporating resistance at the same time maintaining desirable traits in existing varieties is a big challenge in banana breeding that needs great attention. Therefore research should focus on unveiling the hidden knowledge of banana genetics for better breeding.

Impact of covid-19 on banana industry
The COVID-19 pandemic has affected many countries in the world and has led to the global activity downturn moment (Tomasselli, 2021). The strategies engaged to control the spread of the disease have disrupted the functioning of food systems in several ways, with a severe health and socio-economic repercussions associated with livelihoods (FAO, 2020; Chase and Roux, 2020). Banana the most exported fruit crop in the world has faced production, transportation and market challenges that have hampered its value chain in nearly all bananas producing countries (Chase and Roux, 2020). Conversely, in Tanzania, measures related to COVID-19 were not focused on restricted travel within and outside the country, but on sanitation and public gatherings were limited to some

Production
During the COVID-19 labour has been restricted in many countries due social distancing measures to contain the virus (Muyiramuye and Addom, 2021). This has had significant negative impacts on agriculture, especially for farming activities that require constant assistance from farm workers. In many places, shortages of farm labour and planting material has led to reduced production. Where strict lockdowns were in place, farmers could not maintain fields a situation that contributed to loss of harvests. Therefore smallholder farmers in Sub-Sahara Africa are encountering numerous challenges including disruptions of food supply chains, unemployment, and all increases the risks of food insecurity now and in the future. In the eastern part of Africa, the pandemic added on existing challenges such as flooding disasters and the invasion of pests like desert locusts and fall armyworm, which devastated agricultural production (UN, 2020).

Transportation
In many countries in Africa, many governments instituted measures that imposed strict restriction of vehicular transport and movements, closure of hotels, restaurants and lodges, night-time curfews, closure of markets and imposition of strict rules for opening and operation of the markets (Chase and Roux, 2020). Another ways were partial closure of borders and a requirement of COVID-free certificates for cross-border truck drivers, prohibition of unnecessary travel, and requirement of disinfection of transport vehicles, requirement for personal protective equipment for truck drivers, night curfew. All these led to directly or indirectly affected banana (Chase and Roux, 2020). Delivery of new planting material was also negatively impacted leading to less field expansion and re-planting.

Marketing
The market for bananas has massively developed in the country owing to exports and local demand from consumers. Many hefty markets were closed, leading to major crop losses, however smaller local markets were more reliable in the midst of the virus. The export trade was impacted in many ways in many countries although the introduction of sanitary measures helped to maintain business. Moreover, prices crashed due to blocked markets in some places while in others, prices increased due to shortages. In Tanzania traders in the market largely depend on their already established network of customers, both large and small. Orders from clients who used to supply to hotels or schools have significantly decreased as nearly all hotels closed business and schools were closed for a period. In addition, the decreased trading activities in the market can be attributed to restrictions and a consequent decline in cross-border trade, as the market caters to domestic as well as foreign customers. For all intents and purposes, most traders are of the view that there are fewer clients and the purchasing power of the enduring customers has been negatively affected. This is reflected in the decreased orders for most food products (Kissoly, 2021). Therefore, there is a need to stabilize the food production and supply, by strengthening producers and connecting them to markets through unadventurous and emergency channels. Maintaining supple and adjustable actions on rural and food markets are vital to allow them to remain open, while harmonizing this important with public health concerns for social distancing and hygiene protocols.

CONCLUSION
Tanzania as other countries is struggling to improve her banana production, since the crop has been the foremost staple food, economic and social activity in major bananas growing areas. It is suggested that in order to improve banana production there must be an inter-link among different research disciplines, involving governmental and non-governmental organizations, which should embrace each other and seek solutions to existing current challenges in the banana value chain for sustainable production. There is a need to assess the magnitudes of each challenge facing smallholder farmers so as to prioritize limited resource allocation at farm level.